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on Urban and Real Estate Economics |
| By: | Kaas, Leo; Kocharkov, Georgi; Syrichas, Nicolas |
| Abstract: | We examine the evolution of spatial house price dispersion during Germany's recent housing boom. Using a dataset of sales listings, we find that house price dispersion has significantly increased, which is driven entirely by rising price variation across postal codes. We show that both price divergence across labor market regions and widening spatial price variation within these regions are important factors for this trend. We propose and estimate a directed search model of the housing market to understand the driving forces of rising spatial price dispersion, highlighting the role of housing supply, housing demand and frictions in the matching process between buyers and sellers. While both shifts in housing supply and housing demand matter for overall price increases and for regional divergence, we find that variation in housing demand is the primary factor contributing to the widening spatial dispersion within labor market regions. |
| Keywords: | House price dispersion, Spatial housing markets, Search frictions in housing markets |
| JEL: | D83 R21 R31 |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:safewp:302566 |
| By: | Bertoni, Marco (University of Padova); Parkam, Saeideh (University of Naples Federico II) |
| Abstract: | We leverage the timing of pandemic-induced school closures to learn about the emergence of ordinal rank effects in education. Using administrative data from Italian middle schools for four cohorts of students, our study reveals that disrupting peer interactions during the first year of middle school - when students are still unfamiliar with one another - substantially diminishes the impact of ordinal rank on test scores. Instead, later interruptions to peer interactions do not significantly affect the strength of these interpersonal comparisons. |
| Keywords: | ability peer effect, ordinal ability rank, school closures, COVID-19 |
| JEL: | I21 I24 J24 |
| Date: | 2024–08 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iza:izadps:dp17222 |
| By: | Kemeny, Tom; Storper, Michael |
| Abstract: | Spatial income disparities have increased in the US since 1980, a pattern linked to major social, economic, and political challenges. Yet, today’s spatial inequality, and how it relates to the past, remains insufficiently well understood. The primary contribution of this article is to demonstrate a deep polarization in the American spatial system—yet one whose character differs from that commonly reported on in the literature. The increase in spatial inequality since 1980 is almost entirely driven by a small number of populous, economically important, and resiliently high-income superstar city-regions. But we also show that the rest of the system exhibits a long-run pattern of income convergence over the study period. A secondary contribution is historical: today’s superstars have sat durably atop the urban hierarchy since at least 1940. Third, we describe six distinctive pathways of development that regions follow between 1940 and 2019, with certain locations catching up, falling behind, and surging ahead. We explore the role played by initial endowments in driving locations down these pathways, finding population, education, industrial structure, and immigrant attraction to be key distinguishing features. These insights are enabled by a fourth contribution: methodologically, we use group-based trajectory modeling—an approach new to the field that integrates top-down and bottom-up views of the evolving national spatial system. We conclude by exploring implications for the mid-twenty-first century. |
| Keywords: | cities; convergence; economic history; geography; inequality |
| JEL: | D30 R10 |
| Date: | 2023–08–17 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ehl:lserod:120155 |
| By: | Gerald KOESSL (Verband gemeinnütziger Bauvereinigungen (Österreich)) |
| Abstract: | The introduction of housing construction convertible bonds (HCCB) dates back to 1993. HCCB make an important contribution to Austrian housing finance, particularly in multi-storey, limited-profit housing construction. Since their inception, the six active housing construction banks have issued tax-privileged bonds amounting to around EUR 23 billion, which have been used primarily for new construction or renovation activities of limited-profit housing associations. The funds from the housing bonds are therefore not only an important pillar for affordable housing construction, but also lead to lower housing costs due to their interest-reducing effect. |
| Keywords: | Housing bonds, housing construction banks, limited-profit housing associations, Austria |
| JEL: | G21 R31 P13 |
| Date: | 2024–04 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:crc:wpaper:2404en |
| By: | Henderson, J. Vernon; Su, Dongling; Zhang, Qinghua; Zheng, Siqi |
| Abstract: | Over the last forty years, China has experienced extraordinary growth under output market reforms, but the growth rates are now tapering off. Reforms in factor markets and city governance have been much slower and are viewed as having the potential to yield considerable efficiency gains. In this paper, we explore this possibility, tackling the key issues of local political manipulation of land markets and objectives of local leaders, constraints on the local budgetary process to finance infrastructure and capital market favoritism of certain cities. We use a structural general equilibrium model with trade and migration frictions, based on prefecture level data. We model the political process of land misallocation within cities which drives up housing prices and estimate city-by-city local leaders’ preferences over economic performance versus residents’ welfare. Counterfactual analysis shows that equalizing capital prices across cities, changing the political scorecard for city leaders to reward just maximization of local consumer welfare, and relaxing local budget constraints together increase welfare of consumers and returns to capital by 13.7% and 2.25% respectively. Housing prices would decline in almost all cities; and the reforms would reduce the current excessive, often showcase investment in local public infrastructure by 49% nationally. These reforms would significantly reduce the population of favored cities with low capital costs like Tianjin and Beijing and raise the population of cities with high costs of capital and low local-leader weights on consumer welfare like Shenzhen and Dongguan. |
| JEL: | R14 J01 F3 G3 |
| Date: | 2022–10–01 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ehl:lserod:124874 |
| By: | Lars Brugman (Kadaster, Koggelaan); Jan Rouwendal (Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam) |
| Abstract: | This paper investigates the duration of housing construction projects in the Netherlands. We utilize comprehensive data from the Dutch Land Registry for the period 2013-2022 to investigate the importance of municipal land ownership, building plot price changes, construction costs, development inside areas that are already built-up and competition. The construction process covers the time between issuance of building permits and completion of the project, which can be split in a preparation and construction phase. We find that municipal involvement in projects speeds them up significantly, while increasing building plot prices and especially construction costs have a delaying effect. Construction inside already built-up areas fastens the preparation and slows down actual construction, with an significant net delaying effect on the total duration. Competition decreases the time needed for construction. Our results lend support to real option theory and indicate differences in the objections of private firms and local authorities. |
| Keywords: | housing construction, housing supply, land use planning |
| JEL: | R3 R5 D2 |
| Date: | 2024–01–03 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:tin:wpaper:20240004 |
| By: | Bathelt, Harald; Storper, Michael |
| Abstract: | Evolutionary approaches in economic geography have contributed substantially to the growing body of knowledge of regional development processes and their underlying mechanisms. One key concept in the literature on evolutionary economic geography is that of related variety. Herein, regional industry structure is represented through the level of related variety of technologies, skills, or outputs. The related variety concept proposes that regional economic development is favored when an economy diversifies into products or technologies that are closely related to the stock of existing activities. In this article, we raise substantive questions regarding the internal logic of the concept of related variety, its spatial expressions, measurement specifics, empirical regularities and biases, and its possible short- and long-term effects on regional development. Based on this investigation, we make suggestions for improvements to future research. |
| Keywords: | economic geographies of places; evolutionary economic geography (EEG); regional development; regional specialization; related variety |
| JEL: | L23 R11 |
| Date: | 2023–11–01 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ehl:lserod:120162 |
| By: | H. Spencer Banzhaf; William Mathews; Randall Walsh |
| Abstract: | This study examines the relationship between racial segregation and environmental equity in Pittsburgh from 1910 to 1940. Utilizing newly digitized historical data on the spatial distribution of air pollution in what was likely America's most polluted city, we analyze how racial disparities in exposure to air pollution evolved during this period of heightening segregation. Our findings reveal that black residents experienced significantly higher levels of pollution compared to their white counterparts, and this disparity increased over time. We identify within-city moves as a critical factor exacerbating this inequity, with black movers facing increased pollution exposure. We also provide evidence of the capitalization of air pollution into housing markets. Taken as a whole, our results underscore the importance of considering environmental factors in discussions of racial and economic inequalities. |
| JEL: | H44 I15 N30 N92 Q53 R2 |
| Date: | 2024–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:nbr:nberwo:32950 |
| By: | Sanchis-Guarner, Rosa; Szumilo, Nikodem; Vernet, Antoine |
| Abstract: | We study the impact of improved rail access on entrepreneurship rates in England and Wales. We use data from the Census spanning 2001, 2011, and 2021 to analyse self-employment rates in granular geographic areas of around 200 residents. Specifically, we study how they respond to changes in the distance to the nearest train station occurring due to 56 new station openings. We find that all else equal, moving 1 km further away from a station reduces self-employment rates by 0.12 percentage points, with the effect dissipating beyond 7 km. Secondary results suggest that access to rail makes it easier to become self-employed while not making it more attractive compared to employment. Our findings suggest that rail infrastructure improvements can support local entrepreneurship and economic activity, contributing to regional development and reducing economic inequality. |
| Keywords: | entrepreneurship; rail; self-employment |
| JEL: | L20 O18 R11 |
| Date: | 2024–08–01 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ehl:lserod:124680 |
| By: | Rodriguez, Daniel A. PhD; Pike, Susie PhD; McNally, Michael PhD; Li, Meiqing |
| Abstract: | During the pandemic, California’s four major rail systems— Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART), San Diego Metropolitan Transit System (MTS), Sacramento Regional Transit (SacRT), and Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority (LA Metro)—experienced an average ridership decline of 72 percent between 2019 and 2021. BART had the greatest decrease (87 percent) and MTS the lowest (47 percent). However, ridership changes varied significantly across individual stations, with stations located in the central business district or at the end of lines having the highest ridership losses. Land use, development density, and the pedestrian environment are strongly associated with station-level transit ridership. We examined how these characteristics affect transit ridership pre- and post-COVID and how they differ across station types based on longitudinal data collected between 2019 and 2021 for 242 rail stations belonging to BART, MTS, SacRT, and LA Metro. |
| Keywords: | Social and Behavioral Sciences |
| Date: | 2024–09–01 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cdl:itsrrp:qt3km8b4jw |
| By: | Gerald KOESSL (Verband gemeinnütziger Bauvereinigungen (Österreich)) |
| Abstract: | The introduction of housing construction convertible bonds (HCCB) dates back to 1993. HCCB make an important contribution to Austrian housing finance, particularly in multi-storey, limited-profit housing construction. Since their inception, the six active housing construction banks have issued tax-privileged bonds amounting to around EUR 23 billion, which have been used primarily for new construction or renovation activities of limited-profit housing associations. The funds from the housing bonds are therefore not only an important pillar for affordable housing construction, but also lead to lower housing costs due to their interest-reducing effect. |
| Keywords: | Wohnbauanleihen, Wohnbaubanken, Gemeinnützige Bauvereinigungen, Österreich, Anleiheemissionen |
| JEL: | G21 R31 P13 |
| Date: | 2024–03 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:crc:wpaper:2403de |
| By: | Kandhra, Diya; MacCurdy, Dwight; Lipman, Timothy PhD |
| Abstract: | To better understand inequities in EV charging costs, we compared charging costs at public EV DCFC stations to the cost for single-family housing (SFH) residents charging at home for three California electric utility service areas, the Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD), San Diego Gas and Electric Company (SDG&E) and Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E), and for three specific urban areas - Sacramento, San Diego, and San Jose. We used a combination of observed pricing data from PlugShare, a crowd-sourced database of public EV charging, and public DCFC pricing data from electric vehicle service provider (EVSP) websites, as well as electric utility tariff information from their respective websites. |
| Keywords: | Engineering |
| Date: | 2024–09–01 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cdl:itsrrp:qt9dn2j441 |
| By: | Denis Gorea; Oleksiy Kryvtsov; Marianna Kudlyak |
| Abstract: | Evidence on the contemporaneous effects of interest rates on house prices has been elusive. We present direct evidence of the high-frequency causal relationship between interest rates and house prices in the United States. We exploit information contained in listings for residential properties for sale in the United States between 2001 and 2019 from the CoreLogic Multiple Listing Service Dataset. Using high-frequency instruments for monetary policy shocks, we estimate that a contractionary monetary policy surprise that raises average 30-year mortgage rates by 0.25 percentage points lowers housing list prices by 1 percent within two weeks. House prices respond to surprises to the expected path of future rates and are insensitive to the federal funds rate surprises. The initial response of list prices is almost entirely passed through to sale prices and persists for at least a year after the announcement. |
| Keywords: | house prices, monetary policy, transmission of monetary policy, list and sales prices |
| JEL: | E52 R21 R31 |
| Date: | 2024–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:bis:biswps:1212 |
| By: | Simone Cima (Central Bank of Ireland; Trinity College Dublin); Joseph Kopecky (Trinity College Dublin) |
| Abstract: | Policymakers are reckoning with widening disparities in income and wealth. Perhaps no set of policies have the potential impact the distribution of wealth than those that affect home ownership. In most countries, wealth held by all but the top of the distribution is predominantly housing wealth. Many governments have undertaken measures aimed at helping lower to middle-income households to get on the housing ladder. However, the housing market is very complicated, and such policies could end up hurting households through different channels. We aim to provide guidance on the relative impact of various housing policies and macroeconomic conditions on inequality. To do this we build a life-cycle model where households endogenously choose between buying and renting houses. In this framework we quantify how distributions of income, wealth and consumption, as well as homeownership rates, are affected by a wide range of housing policies or features, specifically: borrower-based macroprudential limits, the presence of institutional investors, taxation of rental income, and measures targeted at the construction sector. We find that all of these policies, and the interactions between them, can lead to substantial movements in inequality and homeownership rates, with supply-side policies being the most impactful. This paper also provides a solid modelling framework for future analysis in this area. |
| Keywords: | Housing policy; Macroprudential policy; Wealth inequality; Inequality; Housing; Renting |
| JEL: | E21 G51 R21 R28 R31 |
| Date: | 2024–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:tcd:tcduee:tep0724 |
| By: | Stephen Gibbons; Sandra McNally; Piero Montebruno |
| Abstract: | School absences increased massively during the Covid-19 pandemic and remain high internationally. We investigate whether policy variation in restrictions influenced pupil absence during the pandemic and how this affected post-pandemic attendance and academic achievement. Variation in restrictions during autumn 2020 that restricted social contact (but that were not aimed at schools) caused higher rates of school absence at the time and in subsequent years. The school attendance of pupils from lower socio-economic groups was much more strongly impacted by variation in restrictions |
| Keywords: | schools, COVID-19, pupil absence |
| Date: | 2024–09–06 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cep:cepsps:45 |
| By: | Bruna, Fernando |
| Abstract: | The New Economic Geography (NEG) provides a historical explanation for the spatial agglomeration of economic activity. One of its predictions, the ‘wage equation’, relates regional income to market accessibility. Although the NEG is a long-term theory, empirical literature has tested it using panel data methods, which capture short-term relation-ships between temporal changes in variables. For a sample of European regions, I show that panel data estimations of the wage equation identify only potential spillover effects of the European business cycle on the synchronic evolution of regional per capita income. That is, the panel data results are not due to the mechanisms proposed by the NEG. The paper concludes with a cautionary note about misinterpretation of panel data estimations. |
| Keywords: | NEG, agglomeration, wage equation, fixed effects, first differences, European cycle |
| JEL: | C18 C23 E32 F12 R12 |
| Date: | 2024–08–29 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:121949 |
| By: | Pinchbeck, Edward W.; Roth, Sefi; Szumilo, Nikodem; Vanino, Enrico |
| Abstract: | This study uses the housing market to examine the costs of indoor air pollution. We focus on radon, a common indoor air pollutant which is the leading cause of lung cancer after smoking. For identification, we exploit a natural experiment whereby a risk map update in England induces exogenous variation in published pollution risk levels. We find a significant negative relationship between changes in published pollution risk levels and residential property prices. Interestingly, we do not find a symmetric effect for decreasing risk. We also show that the update of the risk map led higher socioeconomic groups (SEGs) to move away from affected areas, attracting lower SEG residents via lower prices. Overall, our results demonstrate that indoor air quality has material economic effects on the housing market and provide novel policy-relevant insights into how the market responds to information on environmental risks. |
| Keywords: | indoor air pollution; neighbourhood sorting; house prices; risk information; radon |
| JEL: | Q53 H23 R21 |
| Date: | 2023–11–01 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ehl:lserod:118450 |
| By: | Alexandra Tsvetkova |
| Abstract: | To mark the 40th anniversary of the OECD Local Employment and Economic Development (LEED) Programme, this paper examines determinants and consequences of employment resilience, or lack of, in European NUTS3/TL3/TL3 regions over the last 40 years. Descriptive evidence shows that the least resilient regions (those with the largest percentage drop in employment during a recession) slip to persistently lower post-recession employment-to-population ratio trajectories. On the other hand, regions with higher productivity pre-recession lost proportionally fewer jobs during a recession and were more likely to recover to the pre-recession employment levels (except for the recession induced by the COVID-19 pandemic). Overall, the findings point to the ability of productivity to serve as a shield against negative employment impacts of economic crises. |
| JEL: | J01 O18 R11 |
| Date: | 2024–09–19 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:oec:cfeaaa:2024/08-en |
| By: | Nicholas A. Wright (Department of Economics, Florida International University) |
| Abstract: | This paper utilizes administrative data to investigate the gender gap in high school performance on various high-stakes exams and the gender disparity in academic outcomes at the leading university in the Caribbean. The results show that female students outperformed their male peers, being 8.5 and 6.6 percentage points more likely to pass a generic subject in the Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate (CSEC) and Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examination (CAPE) exams, respectively. These results are robust across subject type, school ownership, school rank, and subject difficulty. Additionally, more females are admitted to each degree program annually, and they continue to outperform males regardless of age, enrollment status, or admission scores. The Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition indicate that school attributes, subject-cohort composition, and subject choice explain up to 78% of the gender gap in CSEC and CAPE pass rates, while college readiness, college-level decisions, and field of study fully explain the gap in college GPA. |
| Keywords: | Gender Achievement Gap, Academic Performance, High-Stakes Exam, STEM |
| JEL: | I21 I24 J16 J24 N36 |
| Date: | 2024–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fiu:wpaper:2410 |
| By: | Guillermo Guzmán Prudencio (SDSN Bolivia); Lykke E. Andersen (SDSN Bolivia) |
| Abstract: | This research analyzes the most attractive municipalities in Bolivia, that is, those capable of attracting (and retaining) more population, using new methodological approaches, specifically, using large databases of electricity consumption (Big Data) and powerful satellite images. The central analysis identifies the most attractive municipalities in the country and describes them using certain of their essential characteristics (their population, their geographical position, their political status, and their transport infrastructure). The main hypothesis of the research maintains that the greater concurrence of these variables (essential characteristics) is positively related to the degree of attractiveness of the municipalities. |
| Keywords: | Bolivia, Migration, Attractive Municipalities, Big Data |
| JEL: | O15 O18 |
| Date: | 2023–10 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iad:sdsnwp:0623 |
| By: | Nicholas A. Wright (Department of Economics, Florida International University); Akeem Carter (Department of Economics, Florida International University) |
| Abstract: | This paper examines the heterogeneous impact of need-based grant funding on students' academic performance at a leading university in the Caribbean. In particular, using administrative student-level data, we examine the marginal effect of awarding a $500 US grant each year to needy student loan borrowers, estimating the grant effect across students' gender, past performance, high school rank, starting age, commuting status, field of study, living condition, consumption level, and per-capita income. Employing a novel IV-DID design, the study instruments for grant receipt by leveraging a policy reform that expanded access to college financing for students on welfare. We find robust evidence that the need-based grant significantly improved college students' outcomes, with the greatest benefits observed among on-campus residents, recent high-school graduates, males, younger students, higher achievers, and those with greater financial need. |
| Keywords: | Need-Based Grant, Academic performance, GPA, Graduation |
| JEL: | D04 H52 I22 I23 I28 |
| Date: | 2024–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fiu:wpaper:2412 |
| By: | Dan C. Dewey; Erin M. Fahle; Thomas J. Kane; Sean F. Reardon; Douglas O. Staiger |
| Abstract: | We measure the effect of district use of federal pandemic relief during the 2022-23 school year for a sample of more than 5000 districts in 29 states. We rely on several plausibly exogenous sources of variation in federal grants: differences in state Title I funding formulas, estimation error in Census local area poverty rates and differences in eligibility for federal Title I and subsidized lunch eligibility. We find that each $1000 in spending per student was associated with a .0086 SD improvement in math and a .0049 SD improvement in reading. Both are consistent with a recent meta-analysis of spending impacts by Jackson and Mackevicius (2023). As a placebo test, we find no relationship between federal dollars that were not yet spent during the 2022-23 year. We also find similar results using synthetic control group methods to compare high-poverty districts with high and low amounts of federal aid, but with similar trends in achievement through 2022. Because the federal aid was targeted at higher poverty districts, we find the federal dollars not only contributed to the recovery, but also helped narrow the gaps in achievement which had widened during the pandemic. |
| JEL: | I20 I21 I22 I24 I28 |
| Date: | 2024–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:nbr:nberwo:32897 |
| By: | Ngendahimana charles; Jean de Dieu Dushimimana |
| Abstract: | This study aimed at determining the contribution of usaid soma umenye to the performance of learners of kinyarwanda language in lower primary schools. To assess the contribution of providing trainings to teachers and school leaders to the performance of learners in Kinyarwanda language, to assess the contribution of learning and teaching materials provided to the performance of learners in Kinyarwanda language. The study used correlation research design in which it used both quantitative and qualitative data collection to collect data from 100 participants as a sample out of 824 study population. The sample was drawn from three (3) primary schools located in Muhoza, Nkotsi and Kinigi Sectors of Musanze District. The data was gathered using questionnaire with a Likert scale with closed items and the interview guide was used to collect views from participant on how they think about materials provided, training and contribute to their learning outcomes in Kinyarwanda language in their respective schools. It is against this that the study described recommendations such as Integrate specific training modules on Kinyarwanda language instruction within the existing teacher training programs, implement regular formative and summative assessments to monitor students' progress in Kinyarwanda language proficiency and integrate specific training modules on Kinyarwanda language instruction within the existing teacher training programs. Key words: Providing training, learning, and teaching materials, learners performance. |
| Date: | 2023–12 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:vor:issues:2023-48-01 |
| By: | Tören, Tolga |
| Abstract: | Since the beginnings of the 2000s, but especially in the aftermath of the 2008 crisis in Turkey, many policy texts as well as publications expressing the expectations of the business community began to emphasise the importance of the transport sector for the Turkish economy, based on the claim that the country's transport infrastructure should be built in such a way as to connect production centres with the market at the highest possible speed and at the lowest possible cost. During this period, many infrastructure investments in the form of public-private partnership projects (PPP) in many areas of the transport sector, especially motorways and airports, came to the fore in Turkey, and some strategically important ports, roads or railway institutions began to be subjected to privatisation, commercialisation and deregulation. Another dimension of the process mentioned above is the projects that aim not only to make large investments in transport, called "megaprojects", but also to articulate public urban spaces to these megaprojects by commodifying these spaces through the creation of new rental areas, as in the case of the Haydarpaşa Railway Station, which was opened in 1872 in İstanbul's Asian-side district of Kadıköy beside the Bosphorus with the idea that the freight carried by trains reaching the station could be transferred to the ships in the Bosphorus (Fuhrmann, 2022; Middleton, 2011; Wikipedia, 2023a). In 2004, the Justice and Development Party (AKP) government included the station and a million square metre area of the port next to the station in the urban transformation project, which included many examples of gentrification, such as turning the area into a gallery of shopping malls, luxury hotels, luxury apartments and marinas. The project had a complementary relationship with another project, the Marmaray Tube, which connects the Anatolian and European sides of İstanbul with a tube under the Marmara Sea. This means that the Marmaray Tube allows passengers travelling to İstanbul by train from Anatolian cities, or by suburban train from districts on the Anatolian side of İstanbul, to bypass the Haydarpaşa station and travel to the European side through a tunnel under the Marmara Sea. Once the Marmaray Tube is launched, passengers using rail transport would be able to cross to the European side through the Marmaray Tube instead of the ferries that leave Haydarpaşa and reach the opposite shore in about 15 minutes (Fuhrmann, 2022). Therefore, the restructuring of Haydarpaşa station and its surroundings as a rent-seeking area and the Marmaray Tube project were closely linked. In fact, Haydarpaşa station was closed to train traffic after the Marmaray Tube was inaugurated in 2013. (...) |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:gluwps:302302 |
| By: | Amani Karisa (The African Population and Health Research Center); Moses Ngware (The African Population and Health Research Center); Francis Kiroro (The African Population and Health Research Center); Mulusew Jebena (The African Population and Health Research Center); Obiageri Bridget Azubuike (Independent); Jack Rossiter (Center for Global Development) |
| Abstract: | Exams influence how teachers teach, but most of our understanding comes from cross-sectional studies in OECD countries, particularly the USA. These dynamics might not apply elsewhere. We surveyed 321 Kenyan teachers during their transition from high- to low-stakes assessments in primary schools—the first major assessment reform in nearly 40 years. Our findings suggest that while the stakes for students have fallen, teachers still perceive these 'low-stakes' assessments as impacting their appraisals, career progression, and school reputation. Despite this, respondents generally view assessments as positive motivators and useful tools, and classroom practices show many similarities regardless of assessment type. However, the transition may be altering the pathways through which assessments influence teaching. Regular classroom assessments are becoming more central and are already shaping instructional strategies. Additionally, local tests, which fall outside the main reform, exert significant influence on how teachers approach their work. |
| Date: | 2024–09–05 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cgd:wpaper:702 |
| By: | Agnese Secchi (University of Genoa, IT); Skerdilajda Zanaj (DEM, Université du Luxembourg, L); Gabriele Lombardi (University of Florence, IT) |
| Abstract: | This paper examines how female leadership in the household influences offspring’s key life decisions, with a particular focus on student mobility. Using Italian data from 2014 to 2020, we perform both individual-level and regional gravity analyses. The individual-level analysis focuses on the decision to study in another region, while the gravity analysis explores bilateral student flows between pairs of Italian regions. Female headship is used as a proxy for the mother’s bargaining power within the household, with headship assigned to the parent with the highest income. Our findings reveal that when mothers hold greater decision-making power as heads of the household, students are less likely to move away for higher education. This ‘mother-hen’ effect applies to both sons and daughters and appears to be driven by strong family ties, rather than traditional gender roles, risk aversion, or parental preferences regarding their children’s independence. |
| Keywords: | female headship; student mobility, university education, family ties. |
| JEL: | R2 R23 J16 J12 J13 I12 |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:luc:wpaper:24-08 |
| By: | Lanati, Mauro; Thiele, Rainer |
| Abstract: | Tackling the root causes of migration from developing countries through development cooperation has been suggested as an essential part of the policy mix in OECD migrant destinations. This is even though the evidence on whether economic development leads to more or less people emigrating is so far inconclusive. We investigate the relationship between income per capita and emigration to OECD countries separately for three different skill groups—low‐skilled, medium‐skilled and high‐skilled emigrants—being the first to employ panel regression approaches that account for cross‐country heterogeneity and cover a policy‐relevant time frame of about 5 years. Our findings reveal a universal negative association between income per capita and emigration for all three skill groups and for different income thresholds. This implies that policy makers should not be too concerned about potential trade‐offs between (successful) development cooperation and immigration management, at least in the short to medium run that our analysis covers. At the same time, the scope for using development cooperation as a migration policy instrument can be considered to be limited given the modest size of the estimated income effect: Taking our point estimates at face value, a 10% rise in GDP per capita would on average lead to about 3600 fewer immigrants per destination. |
| Keywords: | Economic Development, Migrants’ Skill Composition, Migration |
| Date: | 2023 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:ifwkie:302107 |
| By: | Mayana Pereira; Shane Greenstein; Raffaella Sadun; Prasanna Tambe; Lucia Ronchi Darre; Tammy Glazer; Allen Kim; Rahul Dodhia; Juan Lavista Ferres |
| Abstract: | We build and analyze new metrics of digital usage that leverage telemetry data collected by Microsoft during operating system updates across forty million Windows devices in U.S. households. These measures of US household digital usage are much more comprehensive than those made available through any existing commercial or government survey. We construct representations of devices in ZIP codes and find evidence of significant variation in usage reflecting an urban-rural divide. We also show the existence of substantial disparities in usage even within narrowly defined Metropolitan Statistical Areas. Income and education correlate with these observed differences. These effects are large and suggest digital literacy gaps that extend beyond the availability of essential IT infrastructure at the local level. These findings call for interventions beyond the traditional focus on infrastructure access and address usage and skills development. The indices are made publicly available to support future research. |
| JEL: | C43 L63 L86 |
| Date: | 2024–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:nbr:nberwo:32932 |
| By: | Palmira Permata Bachtiar; Dinar Dwi Prasetyo |
| Keywords: | return migration, reintegration, circular migration, low-skilled migrant workers |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:agg:wpaper:298 |
| By: | Klein, Nicholas J. (Conrell University); Brown, Anne (University of Oregon); Howell, Amanda; Smart, Michael J. (Rutgers University) |
| Abstract: | How and why do zero-car households seek car access? We used a national online survey of 830 American adults and interviews with twenty-nine low- and moderate-income travelers about their car access behaviors to answer this question. We validated our findings with the 2017 National Household Travel Survey. Respondents got rides, borrowed cars, and used ride-hail to access grocery trips, social/recreational activities, and medical care. While most interviewees intend to purchase a vehicle in the future, they also desire better transit, suggesting that households without cars do not necessarily prefer car ownership. |
| Date: | 2024–09–13 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:osf:socarx:4ngtr |
| By: | Ulfah Alifia; Rezanti Putri Pramana; Gianina Amadira |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:agg:wpaper:3064 |
| By: | Schwab, Thoms |
| Abstract: | The European Cohesion Policy is currently undergoing a profound identity crisis. The ongoing reform debate fundamentally questions the direction and methods of promoting regional development. This debate is further intensified by changing geopolitical conditions, which introduce new, fundamental trade-offs. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the key discussion threads, analyses their implications, and offers initial recommendations for addressing the trade-offs Cohesion Policy is facing. |
| Keywords: | EU Cohesion Policy, European Integration, Structural Funds, Regional Policy |
| JEL: | F15 O52 R58 |
| Date: | 2024–06–13 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:121841 |
| By: | Bouckaert, Jan (University of Antwerp); Stennek, Johan (Department of Economics, School of Business, Economics and Law, Göteborg University) |
| Abstract: | We argue that geographical cross-collateralization – a firm’s ability to pledge incomes earned in more populated areas as “collateral” for the loans needed to finance investments in less populated areas – plays an important role for ensuring universal coverage of next generation communication networks. Our main result is that when firms are capital-constrained, co-investments in urban areas enhance geographical cross-collateralization and thus contribute to universal service through increased coverage for rural consumers. Co-investment may, in addition, introduce retail competition to the benefits of sub-urban consumers. The catch is that urban consumers may suffer from lower infrastructure competition. Co-investment policy therefore may raise tradeoffs between consumers in different (relevant) geographical markets. |
| Keywords: | joint venture; universal service; cross-collateralization; cross subsidization |
| JEL: | D43 K22 L24 L51 |
| Date: | 2024–09–20 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hhs:gunwpe:0847 |
| By: | Xiaoming Cai (Peking University HSBC Business School); Pieter Gautier (VU University Amsterdam); Ronald Wolthoff (University of Toronto) |
| Abstract: | This paper considers a random search model where some locations provide sellers with better chances of meeting many buyers than other locations (for example popular shopping streets or the first page of a search engine). When sellers are heterogeneous in terms of the quality of their product and/or the probability that a given buyer likes their product, it is desirable that sellers of high-quality niche products sort into the best locations. We show that this does not always happen in a decentralized market. Finally, we allow for endogenous location distributions and show that more trades are realized when locations are similar (in which case the aggregate matching function is urn-ball) but that quality weighted trade can be higher when locations are heterogeneous. |
| Keywords: | search frictions, spatial equilibrium, sorting |
| JEL: | C78 D44 D83 |
| Date: | 2024–02–29 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:tin:wpaper:20240015 |
| By: | Christopher K. Allsup; Irene S. Gabashvili |
| Abstract: | This paper describes how a time-varying Markov model was used to forecast housing development at a master-planned community during a transition from high to low growth. Our approach draws on detailed historical data to model the dynamics of the market participants, producing results that are entirely data-driven and free of bias. While traditional time series forecasting methods often struggle to account for nonlinear regime changes in growth, our approach successfully captures the onset of buildout as well as external economic shocks, such as the 1990 and 2008-2011 recessions and the 2021 post-pandemic boom. This research serves as a valuable tool for urban planners, homeowner associations, and property stakeholders aiming to navigate the complexities of growth at master-planned communities during periods of both system stability and instability. |
| Date: | 2024–08 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:arx:papers:2408.14214 |
| By: | Syaikhu Usman; Ilyas Saad; M. Sulton Mawardi; Nina Toyamah |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:agg:wpaper:3716 |
| By: | Lev Razumovskiy; Mariya Gerasimova; Nikolay Karenin |
| Abstract: | We study a mathematical model for the optimization of the price of real estate (RE). This model can be characterised by a limited amount of goods, fixed sales horizon and presence of intermediate sales and revenue goals. We develop it as an enhancement and upgrade of the model presented by Besbes and Maglaras now also taking into account variable demand, time value of money, and growth of the objective value of Real Estate with the development stage. |
| Date: | 2024–08 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:arx:papers:2408.12553 |
| By: | Clemens, Michael A. (George Mason University); Neufeld, Jeremy (George Mason University); Nice, Amy M. (Cornell University) |
| Abstract: | We examine a little-known restriction on high-skill immigration to the United States, the Exchange Visitor Skills List. This List mandates that to become eligible for long-term status in the U.S., certain high-skill visitors must reside in their home countries for two years after participation in the Exchange Visitor Program on a J-1 visa. While well-intended to prevent draining developing nations of needed skills, today the Skills List in practice is outdated and misdirected. It is outdated because it fails to reflect modern economic research on the complex effects of skilled migration on overseas development. It is misdirected because, as we show, the stringency of the List bears an erratic and even counterproductive relationship to the development level of the targeted countries. The List is also opaque: there have been no public estimates of exactly how many high-skill visitors are subject to the list. We provide the first such estimates. Over the last decade, an average of between 35, 000 and 44, 000 high-skill visitors per year have been covered by the home residency requirement via the Skills List. Despite the stated purpose of the List, these restrictions fall more heavily on relatively advanced economies than on the poorest countries. We describe how a proposed revision to the List can address all three of these concerns, balancing the national interest with evidence-based support for overseas development. |
| Keywords: | migration, skill, human capital, talent, restrictions, barriers, visa, policy, brain drain, brain gain, development, migration, immigration, innovation, research, science |
| JEL: | F22 J24 O15 O33 |
| Date: | 2024–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iza:izapps:pp214 |
| By: | Belton, Ben; Breisinger, Clemens; Kassim, Yumna; Pal, Barun Deb; Narayanan, Sudha; Zhang, Xiaobo |
| Abstract: | Clusters are spatial aggregations of small businesses producing the same or related goods or services. Together, these businesses have the potential to contribute to economic development of rural areas by compounding the existing strengths of local producing communities. Cluster-based development has been successful where governments facilitate infrastructure and provide services to support existing clusters, often leading to spillover and expansion of these clusters to wider areas over time (Abdelaziz et al. 2021). Agrifood cluster development can occur via two broad mechanisms: (1) immanent development, where clusters of commercial farms as well as firms in the value chain that provide goods and services re quired by farms (for example, specialized production inputs, machinery, and transport), emerge spontaneously in co-located groups; and (2) organized development, where actors such as government, companies, or nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) organize producers into groups to deliver extension services, inputs, or credit or to upgrade production practices, facilitate collective action to improve terms of market access, or enable compliance with standards or forms of branding such as geographic indications |
| Keywords: | small and medium enterprises; economic development; rural areas; value chains; infrastructure; Asia; Southern Asia; India |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:othbrf:152082 |
| By: | Nina Toyamah; Vita Febriany; Sudarno Sumarto; Jacqueline L Pomeroy |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:agg:wpaper:3656 |
| By: | Thiago Christiano Silva; Carlos Eduardo de Almeida; Solange Maria Guerra; Benjamin Miranda Tabak |
| Abstract: | This study examines how the COVID-19 pandemic influenced bank branch lending behavior in Brazil. Using the different timing and severity of COVID-19 across Brazilian municipalities and identified bank branch credit operations, we construct a branch-specific measure of COVID-19 exposure. Our findings reveal a notable credit reallocation in Brazil during the first year of the pandemic: inland branches more affected by COVID-19 significantly reduced credit to capital-based borrowers while increasing lending to inland clients, driven by heightened risk perceptions of capital-based borrowers. This shift was particularly evident among less liquid and public banks and in regions with more diversified local credit markets. The reallocation was primarily driven by personal loans, indicating that government stimulus measures effectively sustained credit flow to firms despite higher borrowing costs. Our study provides critical insights into the heterogeneous effects of the pandemic on credit markets, highlighting the importance of bank characteristics and regulatory interventions in ensuring financial stability during crises. |
| Date: | 2024–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:bcb:wpaper:601 |
| By: | Syaikhu Usman; Akhmadi; Daniel Suryadarma |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:agg:wpaper:518 |
| By: | King Abdullah Petroleum Studies and Research Center (King Abdullah Petroleum Studies and Research Center) |
| Abstract: | As the world continues to grow and urbanize, the significance of cities will also increase. Urban development is lengthy and costly, justifying the need for effective urban planning. Urban planning is a complex process with many often competing objectives, including sustainability and energy efficiency. Energy consumption is itself a significant concern and a key target of urban sustainability. Being energy efficient can greatly reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, lower energy costs and enhance residents’ quality of life. |
| Keywords: | Alternative fuels, Carbon market, Clean technology, Climate change |
| Date: | 2024–02–25 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:prc:wbrief:ks--2024-wb02 |
| By: | Lisa A. Gennetian; Christina M. Gibson-Davis; William Darity |
| Abstract: | We offer a child-centric framework for reparations with considerations for policy and implications for child descendants of enslaved African Americans. We apply economic theory of human capital integrated with the theories of bioecological developmental systems to illustrate the multilayered aspects of harm from the legacy of slavery and racism. Our curation of estimates shows that relative to white peers, black children bear more than double the risk in outcomes unfavorable to educational and economic prosperity from birth through young adulthood. We also find that enduring racial wealth differences are larger among households with children than without children, with the child household racial wealth gap in 2019 remaining comparable to that seen 60 years ago. Simulations suggest that a wealth transfer of $130, 000 per child during early childhood reduces the black-white gap in high school graduation by 13 percentage points and increases college attendance by 26 percentage points. A review of existing U.S. reparations initiatives shows that few include direct financial transfers or other forms of investments specifically for black families or children. Based on a contemporary survey, we find that black parents with young children express support for reparations in the form of direct cash payments as well as other forms of financial assistance. |
| JEL: | H31 H5 I30 J15 J18 K38 Z1 |
| Date: | 2024–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:nbr:nberwo:32931 |
| By: | Wenefrida Dwi Widyanti; Asep Suryahadi |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:agg:wpaper:634 |
| By: | Kimberly Dadisman; Andre Nickow; Philip Oreopoulos |
| Abstract: | Parenting is widely considered to be among the most important influences on early childhood (EC) development. But to what extent and under what circumstances can EC parenting programs improve child learning outcomes? While substantial progress has been made toward addressing these questions in recent years, there have been few attempts to systematically synthesize the evidence thus far with a view toward scaling and policy implications. This paper works toward filling this gap through a systematic review including both a quantitative meta-analysis and a detailed narrative analysis of randomized evaluations that test the impacts of EC parenting programs on learning outcomes. We find that these programs generate substantial effects across a wide range of contexts, and that the largest impacts are associated with programs that are conducted in low- or middle-income countries and that use curricula focusing on cognitive stimulation. Group parenting programs tend to yield effect sizes that are, on average, comparable to home visiting programs, typically at substantially lower costs. Qualitative analysis of evaluations of scaled interventions reveals that administrative implementation barriers rather than program ineffectiveness likely represent the primary impediment to stronger impact. We conclude by reflecting on implications for theory, policy, and priorities for future research. |
| JEL: | I2 J13 |
| Date: | 2024–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:nbr:nberwo:32959 |
| By: | Nina Toyamah; Syaikhu Usman |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:agg:wpaper:3705 |
| By: | Titus Galama (University of Southern California’s Center for Economic and Social Research, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam); Andrei Munteanu (Université du Québec à Montréal); Kevin Thom (University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee) |
| Abstract: | Using linked records from the 1880 to 1940 full-count United States decennial censuses, we estimate the effects of parental exposure to compulsory schooling (CS) laws on the human capital outcomes of children, exploiting the staggered roll-out of state CS laws in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. CS reforms not only increased the educational attainment of exposed individuals, but also that of their children. We find that one extra year of maternal (paternal) exposure to CS increased children’s educational attainment by 0.015 (0.016) years - larger than the average effects on the parents themselves, and larger than the few existing intergenerational estimates from studies of more recent reforms. We find particularly large effects on black families and first-born sons. Exploring mechanisms, we find suggestive evidence that higher parental exposure to CS affected children’s outcomes through higher own human capital, marriage to more educated spouses, and a higher propensity to reside in neighborhoods with greater school resources (teacher-to-student ratios) and with higher average educational attainment. |
| Keywords: | Education, Economic Development, Returns to Education |
| JEL: | I1 I2 I24 I25 I26 |
| Date: | 2024–01–25 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:tin:wpaper:20240006 |
| By: | Lamare, J. Ryan; Benton, Richard A.; Tabarani, Patricia Michel |
| Abstract: | The authors investigate how race and political partisanship affected variations in workplace and non-workplace mobility at three COVID-19 phases—lockdown (2020), reopening (2021), and endemic COVID (2022). They theorize that structural racism compelled relatively greater workplace mobility rates in Black communities during lockdown, and reduced Black workplace mobility during reopening and endemic COVID. By contrast, they posit elite-level anti-science skepticism and its amplification resulted in Trump-voting communities experiencing relatively higher workplace and non-workplace mobility rates than non-Trump-voting areas throughout the pandemic. Regressions primarily using county-level Google Mobility Reports data support the hypotheses, conditioning on state-level fixed effects and county-level urbanity, COVID job-type sorting, demographics, and socioeconomics. The county-level results are complemented by outcomes from novel individual-level COVID lockdown survey data, helping connect the proposed individual-level mechanisms to the county-level findings. The authors conclude that work mobility during COVID was racialized and politicized, offering empirical insights into how systematic disadvantages can lead to increased and unequal precarity during periods of acute economic or social crisis. |
| Keywords: | COVID; economic inequality; political polarization; race and ethnicity; work mobility |
| JEL: | J50 J1 |
| Date: | 2024–08 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ehl:lserod:125302 |
| By: | Alexander Bick; Adam Blandin; Aidan Caplan; Tristan Caplan |
| Abstract: | This paper documents the prevalence of work from home (WFH) in six U.S. data sets. These surveys measure WFH using different questions, reference periods, samples, and survey collection methods. Once we construct samples and WFH measures that are comparable across surveys, all surveys broadly agree about the trajectory of aggregate WFH since the Covid-19 outbreak. The surveys agree that pre-pandemic differences in WFH rates by sex, education, and state of residence expanded following the Covid-19 outbreak. The surveys also show similar post-pandemic trends in WFH by firm size and industry. Finally, we highlight that an important source of quantitative differences in WFH across surveys is WFH by self-employed workers; by contrast, surveys closely agree on rates of WFH among employees. |
| Keywords: | work from home; remote work; telecommuting; commuting; data set comparisons |
| JEL: | I18 J21 J22 J24 L23 |
| Date: | 2024–09–11 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fip:fedlwp:98776 |
| By: | Nicholas Bloom; Marcela Carvalho; Tarek A. Hassan; Aakash Kalyani; Joshua Lerner; Ahmed Tahoun |
| Abstract: | We identify phrases associated with novel technologies using textual analysis of patents, job postings, and earnings calls, enabling us to identify four stylized facts on the diffusion of jobs relating to new technologies. First, the development of economically impactful new technologies is geographically highly concentrated, more so even than overall patenting: 56% of the most economically impactful technologies come from just two U.S. locations, Silicon Valley and the Northeast Corridor. Second, as the technologies mature and the number of related jobs grows, hiring spreads geographically. But this process is very slow, taking around 50 years to disperse fully. Third, while initial hiring in new technologies is highly skill biased, over time the mean skill level in new positions declines, drawing in an increasing number of lower-skilled workers. Finally, the geographic spread of hiring is slowest for higher-skilled positions, with the locations where new technologies were pioneered remaining the focus for the technology’s high-skill jobs for decades. |
| Keywords: | employment; geography; innovation; research and development |
| JEL: | O31 O32 |
| Date: | 2024–08–26 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fip:fedlwp:98770 |
| By: | Guillermo Guzmán Prudencio (SDSN Bolivia); Lykke E. Andersen (SDSN Bolivia); Ariel Zeballos (SDSN Bolivia); Diego Vladimir Romecín Duarte (SDSN Bolivia) |
| Abstract: | The study analyses unfinished migration in Bolivia, understood as the phenomenon by which some families maintain double residence between the countryside and the city. From the analysis of household electricity consumption (as a proxy variable of their socioeconomic level), different livelihood strategies are evaluated, as well as their implications for poverty. The use of big data (more than 100 million observations) and the analytical methodology are certainly novel and propose alternative possibilities for research in applied economics. |
| Keywords: | Bolivia, migration, poverty, electrical consumption |
| JEL: | O15 O18 |
| Date: | 2023–06 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iad:sdsnwp:0323 |
| By: | Rubal Dua; Tamara Sheldon (King Abdullah Petroleum Studies and Research Center) |
| Abstract: | Research has shown that when combined in a mobility-on-demand (MOD) framework, automation, carpooling, and electrification have the potential for theoretically large emission reductions. However, there is insufficient research regarding the consumer preferences for and behavioral responses to this vision of transportation in the future. In this paper, we use choice experiment data collected from an online ride-hailing survey to quantify the consumer preferences for these technologies. |
| Keywords: | Ride-hailing, Vehicle Electrification |
| Date: | 2024–03–28 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:prc:dpaper:ks--2024-dp06 |