| Abstract: |
Nature-based tourism is growing globally and seen as an economic development
path for many countries. Namibia links nature-based tourism into the Community
Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) concept; combining conservation,
tourism and the improvement of livelihoods of rural communities that are yet
not always complementary. They can also be conflicting. Through the CBNRM
program local population is registered as a ‘conservancy’ (a territorial unit)
which officially owns and manages collectively their natural resources, for
finally encouraging and supporting tourism. Thus, communities have an
incentive to manage their wildlife and natural resources sustainable to derive
an economic benefit from tourism. Economic benefits from tourism can be mainly
generated through enterprises, offering employments and cash incomes to rural
communities. However, the degree of participation in tourism depends on the
suitability with their existing livelihood system, involving trade-offs on the
farm like households land and labor allocation, subsistence requirements and
expenditures as well as the choice of different activities affected by
seasonality. Finally, subject to different opportunity costs, leading to the
question: (i) Is nature-based tourism a means to improve livelihoods of rural
communities? Further, the number of tourists entering natural sites, like
Zambezi, and spending cash in rural environments is influenced by regional
attractiveness, which is conflicting with the increasing exploitation of
natural resources from and within rural communities. This double sided demand
for same resources also implies trade-offs, which are tried to be harmonized
with the CBNRM program, thus arising the question: (ii) Does nature-based
tourism have the potential to reduce overfishing? This paper aims to optimize
these trade-offs constructing a mathematical programming model based in the
Sikunga Conservancy. An optimization model was constructed for the Sikunga
Conservancy to simulate a properly working CBNRM so that a communities social
welfare criterion is maximized. Thus, the model can be viewed as a central
planning model for optimal resource allocation aimed at maximizing social
welfare for the Sikunga Conservancy community, while implying an adequately
and collectively managed CBNRM. The mathematical programming model was
constructed using General Algebraic Modelling System (GAMS) Software to
reflect the livelihood system of the rural community and was run for the 197
sampled households (done in 2012). Two simulations are conducted: A reference
and a CBNRM case. The reference case reproduces the livelihood system of the
community in the Sikunga Conservancy, whereas the CBNRM case simulates an
adequate managed CBNRM and analyzes the effects of nature-based tourism within
the concept. In line with the goals of CBNRM to improve livelihoods as well as
nutrition, nutritional requirements are increased in the simulation. CBNRM
also aims at conserving wildlife and using natural resources sustainably. Due
to Sikunga’s high dependence on fish resources for their livelihoods but also
for angling tourism, the simulation puts the model under the umbrella of
sustainable use of the fish resource. For this, a biological growth model was
integrated that calculates a sustainable resource extraction by the
conservancy. The simulation searches for reducing overfishing under
consideration of household’s livelihood system as well as tourism as a
possible means to foster sustainability (conservation management). It connects
nature-based tourism with the CBNRM concept. Reference solution showed that
Sikunga community’s livelihood activities are diversified and that
nature-based tourism is an important source of income, with local fishing
lodges offering employments within the conservancy over the whole year.
Especially fish resources are of high regional importance for household’s
subsistence consumption and cash income. However, fish stocks are being
harvested over the rate of sustainable yield, contributing to the problem of
overfishing in the Zambezi region. This in turn threats community’s
livelihoods while heavily affecting the regional tourism sector, mainly
consisting of recreational fishing (sport angling). Additionally, it was found
that the community lacks for an adequate nutrition. Issues with continued
malnourishment are likely to hinder development for the community including
the success of CBNRM and their partnership with tourism operators, thus need
to be considered for a potential well-working concept. Consequently a CBNRM
case was run, that accounted for a proper management. The simulation focused
on the conservation of fish resources which are fundamental for regions
livelihoods as well as tourism number, demand and potential sector growth.
Models solution showed that nature-based tourism is a means to improve
livelihoods of rural communities. A marginal social welfare loss of the
Sikunga community, due to a sustainable fish resource use implication, were
stated to be harmonized with the potential conservancy benefits from
nature-based tourism. Therefore the community needs to conserve their natural
resources, especially fish, for being an attractive site for tourism, thus
fostering further tourism numbers and related establishments, which are
basically for conservancy wide benefit. However, this demands an appropriate
CBNRM. Additionally, nutritional levels within the community increase in the
solution what also confronts the slight decrease in social welfare. Further,
the model showed that if CBNRM is well-managed, nature-based tourism have the
potential to reduce overfishing. Nature-based tourism, embedded in a
sustainable fish resource use, heavily decreases catch numbers of rural
communities within conservancies. It offers rural households an alternative
livelihood strategy in tourism, which can take care of the people who have to
reduce their fishing activity. |