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on Transport Economics |
| By: | Fabien Leurent (LVMT - Laboratoire Ville, Mobilité, Transport - Université Paris Est Marne-la-Vallée - Ecole des Ponts ParisTech - IFSTTAR UMR-T9404); Elisabeth Windisch (LVMT - Laboratoire Ville, Mobilité, Transport - Université Paris Est Marne-la-Vallée - Ecole des Ponts ParisTech - IFSTTAR UMR-T9404) |
| Abstract: | The development of electro-mobility, with electric motors replacing the internal combustion engine, raises issues relating to the environment, energy and industry. Within a given country, it would have an economic and social impact in many areas, in particular on governments. Our objective is to quantify the respective impacts on the public finances of an electrically powered or petrol fuelled private car. In order to do this, we establish an integrated method of valuation, covering both manufacture and use of the vehicle, which locates these stages within or outside the country concerned. From a "depth" perspective, it incorporates the economic proceeds from the different activities and what they consume, and from a "breadth" perspective it incorporates the fiscal effects (VAT, fuel and energy taxes, tax on production, etc.) and the social effects (social contributions, unemployment benefits). The valuation method is based on an input-output model of the productive economy within a country, combined with mechanisms of fiscal and social transfer. We postulate the existence of an activity for the Manufacture of electric vehicles, and we include this within the consumption matrix associated with production. We apply this method to France, and to a diverse range of scenarios regarding the place in which the vehicle is manufactured and used. From this assessment it emerges that the impact of a vehicle on the public finances is substantial: manufacture contributes approximately the purchase price excluding VAT, and usage adds an amount of the same order of magnitude. The vast majority of the revenues arise from the social contributions associated with production (approximately 70%); VAT accounts for almost 20%, tax on production around 5%, and energy surcharge 9% for an internal combustion vehicle or 1% for an electric vehicle. If it is both manufactured and used inside the country, then an electric vehicle might contribute very slightly more to the public finances than an internal combustion vehicle, before any purchase incentive bonus, which would markedly reverse the outcome. The worst scenario would be the use of an imported electric vehicle instead of a domestically manufactured internal combustion vehicle. At the other end of the scale, as an export product, an electric vehicle contributes substantially more to the public purse than an internal combustion vehicle. |
| Keywords: | Input-output model. Taxation. Social transfers. Life-cycle analysis |
| Date: | 2012–02–01 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:journl:hal-00680987&r=tre |
| By: | Elisabeth Windisch (LVMT - Laboratoire Ville, Mobilité, Transport - Université Paris Est Marne-la-Vallée - Ecole des Ponts ParisTech - IFSTTAR UMR-T9404) |
| Abstract: | A range of electric vehicle policy-, market condition-, and user/usage specification scenarios is modeled in order to derive total costs of ownership (TCO) of electric vehicles (EVs) compared to conventional vehicles (CVs). Special importance is given to user and territorial characteristics that prove to have significant impact on the TCO. For this purpose the Paris region is taken as example. Further, sensitivity analyses of cost influencing factors are carried out; break-even analyses reveal most stringent requirements (concerning vehicle detention period, fuel prices and annual mileage) for a successful EV uptake. The set up model and derived TCO can (should!) serve for well founded future EV demand analyses. |
| Keywords: | Electric mobility; public policy; total costs of ownership; economic analysis; scenario analysis |
| Date: | 2011–05–25 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:journl:hal-00676021&r=tre |
| By: | Börjesson, Maria (Royal Institute of Technology (KTH)); Eliasson, Jonas (Royal Institute of Technology (KTH)); Hugosson, Muriel (Royal Institute of Technology (KTH)); Brundell-Freij, Karin (WSP Analysis & Strategy) |
| Abstract: | Congestion charges were introduced in Stockholm in 2006, first as a trial followed by a referendum, then permanently from 2007. This paper discusses what conclusions can be drawn from the first five years of operation, until mid-2011. We show that the traffic reduction caused by the charges has increased slightly over time, once external factors are controlled for. Alternative-fuel vehicles were exempt from the charges through 2008, and we show that this substantially increased the sales of such vehicles. We discuss public and political acceptability, synthesizing recent research and Swedish experience. We conclude that objective and subjective effects on the traffic system, as well as general environmental and political attitudes, formed the basis of the strong public support, while institutional reforms and resolution of power issues were necessary to gain political support. Finally, we briefly discuss implications for the transport planning process in general. |
| Keywords: | Congestion pricing; acceptability; evaluation; Stockholm |
| JEL: | R41 R42 R48 |
| Date: | 2012–02–02 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hhs:ctswps:2012_003&r=tre |
| By: | Börjesson, Maria (KTH); Eliasson, Jonas (KTH) |
| Abstract: | We provide a synthesis of results and insights from the Swedish Value of Time study, with focus on what is relevant for transport appraisal and understanding travel behaviour. We summarize recent econometric advances, and show how these enable a better understanding and identification of the value of time distribution. The influence of the sign and size of changes is estimated and discussed, including the problems of loss aversion and the value of small time savings. Further, we show how the value of time depends on trip and traveller characteristics, discuss in what dimensions the value of time should be differentiated in appraisal, and provide recommended values for use in applied transport appraisal. |
| Keywords: | Value of time; Appraisal; Cost-benefit analysis; Travel behaviour; Weighted cost-benefit analysis |
| JEL: | C25 D61 J22 R41 R42 |
| Date: | 2012–03–13 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hhs:ctswps:2012_008&r=tre |
| By: | Alexandersson , Gunnar (Stockholm School of Economics); Hultén, Staffan (Stockholm School of Economics); Nilsson, Jan-Eric (VTI); Pyddoke, Roger (VTI) |
| Abstract: | The purpose of this paper is to describe Sweden’s recent reforms to open the railway passenger markets to entry, and to addresses four critical issues for the success of the reforms; the allocation of infrastructure capacity, the provision of maintenance and terminal facilities, the access to rolling stock and the provision of information and ticketing to travelers. The analysis shows that the legislation and regulatory tools that are needed to handle these challenges to a large extent remain to be developed. |
| Keywords: | Railway; regulation; infrastructure capacity; rolling stock; terminal facility; ticketing |
| JEL: | L43 L51 L92 |
| Date: | 2012–02–02 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hhs:ctswps:2012_005&r=tre |
| By: | Börjesson, Maria (Royal Institute of Technology (KTH)); Eliasson, Jonas (Royal Institute of Technology (KTH)); Franklin, Joel (Royal Institute of Technology (KTH)) |
| Abstract: | The standard method of estimating the value of travel time variability for use in policy appraisal is to estimate the parameters of a reduced-form utility function, where some measure of travel time variability (such as the standard deviation) is included. A problem with this approach is that the obtained valuation will in general depend on the standardized travel time distribution, and hence cannot be transferred from one context to another. A recently suggested remedy of this problem has been to estimate a scheduling model, which in theory is transferrable, and use the implied reduced-form to derive valuations for use in appraisal. In this paper we estimate both a scheduling model and the implied reduced-form model, using stated choice data. The valuation of travel time variability implied by the scheduling model turns out to be substantially smaller than what is obtained from a reduced-form model estimated on the same sample. The results suggest that the scheduling model does not capture all of the disutility arising from travel time variability. Hence, although it can be shown that scheduling and reduced-form models are “theoretically equivalent”, that hypothesized equivalence is not reflected in the empirical evidence. We speculate that the derivation of reduced-form models from an underlying scheduling model omits two essential features: first, the notion of an exogenously fixed “preferred arrival time” neglects the fact that most activities can be rescheduled given full information about the travel times in advance, and second, disutility may be derived from uncertainty as such, in the form of anxiety, decisions costs or costs for having contingency plans. We also report our estimates of the valuation of travel time variability for public transit trips, for use in applied appraisal. |
| Keywords: | Travel time variability; reliability; delays; scheduling models |
| JEL: | D61 R49 |
| Date: | 2012–02–02 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hhs:ctswps:2012_002&r=tre |
| By: | Susilo, Yusak O. (Royal Institute of Technology (KTH)); Williams, Katie (University of the West of England (UWE)); Lindsay, Morag (Oxford Brookes University); Dair, Carol (Oxford Brookes University) |
| Abstract: | This paper explores the influence of individuals’ environmental attitudes and urban design features on travel behavior, including mode choice. It uses data from residents of 13 new neighborhood UK developments designed to support sustainable travel. It is found that almost all respondents were concerned about environmental issues, but their views did not necessarily ‘match’ their travel behavior. Individuals’ environmental concerns only had a strong relationship with walking within and near their neighborhood, but not with cycling or public transport use. Residents’ car availability reduced public transport trips, walking and cycling. The influence of urban design features on travel behaviors was mixed, higher incidences of walking in denser, mixed and more permeable developments were not found and nor did residents own fewer cars than the population as a whole. Residents did, however, make more sustainable commuting trips than the population in general. Sustainable modes of travel were related to urban design features including secured bike storage, high connectivity of the neighborhoods to the nearby area, natural surveillance, high quality public realm and traffic calming. Likewise the provision of facilities within and nearby the development encouraged high levels of walking. |
| Keywords: | Sustainable urban design; Travel patterns; Attitudes and beliefs; Sustainable travel modes |
| JEL: | O18 O21 O44 R21 R28 R31 R42 R58 Z10 |
| Date: | 2012–02–02 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hhs:ctswps:2012_001&r=tre |
| By: | Börjesson , Maria (KTH) |
| Abstract: | This study uses a stated choice experiment and drawings of four different type-environments to assess how various security-promoting factors in the built physical environment influence valuation of walking time when accessing public transport. Valuations that can be applied for evaluating policies to improve perceived security are obtained. Consistent results are achieved, indicating that the method is promising for incorporating aspects in the physical environment in the welfare analysis. The results indicate a systematic variation in value of walk time in different physical environments and it is more dependent of the physical environment for women than for men. This paper thereby contributes to the literature by showing that results by social sciences can be verified using methods and theories traditionally used in transport and welfare analysis and may therefore be incorporated in standard CBA. A contribution of this study is the insight that the perception of insecurity involved in accessing the public transport system is a welfare loss that can be quantified. |
| Keywords: | Insecurity; Walk time weight; Value of walk time; Public transport |
| JEL: | C25 D61 J22 R41 R42 |
| Date: | 2012–03–19 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hhs:ctswps:2012_009&r=tre |
| By: | Anderstig, Christer (WSP Analysis & Strategy); Berglund, Svante (WSP Analysis & Strategy); Eliasson, Jonas (Royal Institute of Technology (KTH)); Andersson, Matts (WSP Analysis & Strategy); Pyddoke, Roger (VTI) |
| Abstract: | The presence of distortive taxation and agglomeration benefits in the labour market means that there are benefits and losses not captured by standard cost-benefit analyses of transport policy measures. Recent theoretical analyses have raised concerns that the labour market effects of congestion charges may constitute considerable losses in the form of reduced aggregate labour income, over and above what is captured by the consumer surplus in the standard analysis of congestion charges – possibly to the extent that congestion charges may reduce aggregate social welfare, contrary to conventional wisdom in transport economics. The sign and size of these effects are an empirical question, however. We investigate this issue by estimating the labour income effects of the Stockholm congestion charges, using an estimated relationship between workplace accessibility and labour income. Results show positive effects on labour income, meaning that the “wider economic benefits” of this system are in fact benefits, not losses. It turns out to be crucial that the model accounts for value-of-time heterogeneity in the income/accessibility relationship and in the calculation of generalized travel costs. |
| Keywords: | Congestion pricing; wider economic benefits; labour market distortions; cost-benefit analysis. |
| JEL: | D62 R41 R48 |
| Date: | 2012–02–02 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hhs:ctswps:2012_004&r=tre |
| By: | Crescenzi, Riccardo; Rodríguez-Pose, Andrés |
| Abstract: | Transport infrastructure has represented one of the cornerstones of development and cohesion strategies in the European Union (EU) and elsewhere in the world. However, despite the considerable funds devoted to it, its impact remains controversial. This paper revisits the question of to what extent transport infrastructure endowment -- proxied by regional motorways -- has contributed to regional growth in the EU between 1990 and 2004. It analyses infrastructure in relationship to other factors which may condition economic growth, such as innovation, migration, and the local ‘social filter’, taking also into account the geographical component of intervention in transport infrastructure and innovation. The results of the two-way fixed-effect (static) and GMM-diff (dynamic) panel data regressions indicate that infrastructure endowment is a relatively poor predictor of economic growth and that regional growth in the EU results from a combination of an adequate ‘social filter’, good innovation capacity, both in the region and in neighbouring areas, and a region's capacity to attract migrants. The meagre returns of infrastructure endowment on economic growth raises interesting questions about the opportunity costs of further infrastructure investments across most of Western Europe. |
| Keywords: | Economic growth; European Union; Infrastructure; Innovation; Regions; Spillovers |
| JEL: | R11 R12 R42 R58 |
| Date: | 2012–03 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cpr:ceprdp:8882&r=tre |
| By: | Banerjee, Abhijit; Duflo, Esther; Qian, Nancy |
| Abstract: | This paper estimates the effect of access to transportation networks on regional economic outcomes in China over a twenty-period of rapid income growth. It addresses the problem of the endogenous placement of networks by exploiting the fact that these networks tend to connect historical cities. Our results show that proximity to transportation networks have a moderate positive causal effect on per capita GDP levels across sectors, but no effect on per capita GDP growth. We provide a simple theoretical framework with empirically testable predictions to interpret our results. We argue that our results are consistent with factor mobility playing an important role in determining the economic benefits of infrastructure development. |
| Keywords: | firms; growth; inequality; infrastructure |
| JEL: | D2 O4 R4 |
| Date: | 2012–03 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cpr:ceprdp:8874&r=tre |
| By: | Havranek, Tomas; Irsova, Zuzana; Janda, Karel |
| Abstract: | One of the most frequently examined statistical relationships in energy economics has been the price elasticity of gasoline demand. We conduct a quantitative survey of the estimates of elasticity reported for various countries around the world. Our meta-analysis indicates that the literature suffers from publication selection bias: insignificant or positive estimates of the price elasticity are rarely reported, although implausibly large negative estimates are reported regularly. In consequence, the aver- age published estimates of both short- and long-run elasticities are exaggerated twofold. Using mixed effects multilevel meta-regression, we show that after correction for publication bias the average long-run elasticity reaches -0:31 and the average short-run elasticity only -0:09. |
| Keywords: | gasoline demand, price elasticity, meta-analysis, publication selection bias, Agricultural and Resource Economics |
| Date: | 2011–09–01 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cdl:agrebk:qt0m94j50t&r=tre |
| By: | Shoup, Donald |
| Abstract: | Universities have tried almost every possible way to deal with the shortage of campus parking: lotteries, hunting licenses, first-come-first-served, waiting lists, seniority, and need-based systems. As another way to eliminate parking shortages, this paper proposes using the Goldilocks Principle of parking prices to balance supply and demand: the price at any location is too high if many spaces are vacant, and too low if no spaces are vacant. When a few vacant spaces are available everywhere, the prices are just right and drivers can always find a place to park. The chapter concludes by proposing a pilot program to test drivers’ responses to performance prices for campus parking. |
| Keywords: | Urban Studies/Affairs |
| Date: | 2011–09–01 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cdl:uctcwp:qt2zk4v5k3&r=tre |
| By: | Lo, Ria S. Hutabarat |
| Abstract: | Walking is the main mode of transportation for many of the world’s people, particularly those in cities of the majority world. In the metropolitan region of Jakarta, walking in the public realm constitutes the main transportation mode for almost 40 percent of trips—a massive contribution to urban mobility. On the other hand, there is no comprehensive planning for pedestrians in an analogous manner to other modes of transportation. Pedestrian facilities are often dilapidated, damaged, dangerous, or missing completely. Additionally, there is no process for assessing the inventory of pedestrian facilities, planning pedestrian facilities at a region-wide level, or even identifying the location of vernacular pedestrian routes in low-income and informal areas. Provincial pedestrian planning focuses on piecemeal, symbolic spaces such as monumental plazas that serve the nation-building project, but overlooks the functional network of routes that address the daily needs of the city’s residents. This dissertation examines the issue of walkability planning in Jakarta by investigating what matters to pedestrians and how pedestrian space is produced. The research employs mixed methods, including pedestrian network groundtruthing, structured streetscape observations, multimodal traffic counts, pedestrian activity mapping, pedestrian surveys and interviews with policy-makers. Data is analyzed through a combination of in-depth qualitative analysis as well as quantitative and statistical analysis. Based on this research, six key elements of walkability planning are proposed for Jakarta: multidisciplinarity, ethnography, accessibility, legibility, integrated activity, and shared streets. A literature review of walkability metrics reveals that walking is a highly multidisciplinary activity, with very different metrics emerging from different fields. In order to effectively encourage pedestrian activity, new multidisciplinary metrics should integrate the perspectives of all of these related disciplines and pedestrian planning should occur through inter-agency coordination. In Jakarta, interviews with policy-makers suggested that pedestrian planning is hindered by the fact that there is no lead agency for pedestrian planning, and there is a lack of cooperation between the different agencies that plan and produce urban public space. Pedestrian planning is also hindered by a discursive framework that is both modally and geographically biased—favoring motorized, long-distance modes of transportation and employing method derived from a Western research and planning norms. In order to overcome this discursive bias, ethnography should become a standard part of urban research, planning and design. The need for ethnography and qualitative analysis was made visible by the mismatch between standard transportation terminology, and prevailing practices observed in pedestrian mapping exercises and raised by pedestrians in on-the street interviews. For example, standard survey categories do not account for informal or integrated activity patterns like mobile street vending. From surveys conducted with mobile street vendors, it was difficult to separate their pedestrian activities into categories of travel from home to work, business-related travel, and visiting friends and relatives. In fact, it was difficult to even separate their travel from their activities since many vendors carried out business as they made their way through the neighborhood. With a large portion of the population engaged in the informal sector, the discrepancy between assumed and actual behavior severely compromises the quality of transportation-related research that is conducted in Jakarta and many other majority world cities. Ethnographic and qualitative research methods may therefore assist in producing more context-sensitive planning data and outcomes. These context-sensitive methods could include new analytical methods that focus on integrated activity, rather than trip-based or activity-based analysis. In relation to pedestrian activity, context-sensitive planning encompasses new approaches to accessibility that combine the notion of transportation accessibility with disabled access and universal access standards. The need for such an approach was revealed during interviews with policy-makers, who described accessibility in terms of market goods rather than human rights. Within the market for urban public space, ordinary pedestrians were unable to compete with other modes of transportation; within the market for urban impressions, ordinary pedestrian spaces were outcompeted by prominent, symbolic spaces; and within the market for cultural capital, ordinary pedestrians were excluded from planning processes because even the discourse of pedestrian planning was inaccessible to regular residents. In response to this problem of exclusion, integrated accessibility may facilitate inclusion in both planning processes and urban spaces within the city. In particular, integrated accessibility would aim to provide comprehensive routes of travel for all pedestrians, rather than isolated pockets of so-called accessible (yet unreachable) facilities. More context sensitive planning would also be facilitated through greater legibility of fine-grained and vernacular pedestrian networks that were missing from standard planning maps. These fine-grained networks represent highly connected facilities that serve much of Jakarta’s pedestrian transportation task. While the current synoptic illegibility of these areas may conveniently allow some communities to avoid state intrusion, it also means that low-income populations are chronically under-served with respect to basic urban planning and services. Increased legibility therefore allows for improvement and maintenance of urban systems like safe, functional pedestrian networks, and it may also play a role in increasing tenure security for Jakarta’s significant floating population. In many of these vernacular spaces, new street design approaches would also benefit pedestrians, who tend to use the streets as shared spaces, rather than spaces that are rigidly segregated by mode. Pedestrian activity mapping revealed that only an overwhelming majority of pedestrians used streets as hybrid spaces, with activity types falling into the categories of surface sensitive, risk-averse, distance-minimizing and stationary pedestrians. More realistic shared street designs would therefore accommodate —rather than ignore—the types of activities that occur along Jakartan streets. Design standards for “great streets†in Jakarta would also emphasize the safe sharing of streets through self-enforcing approaches to speed limits, and the integration of various urban elements like drainage, mobility and public-private interaction. While walkability planning in Jakarta displays many “wicked problem†features, there is much that can be done to improve, if not resolve, conditions for pedestrians within the region. Recommended strategies for walkability planning in Jakarta include a regional walkability plan and environmental policy developed using participatory planning, reformed governance and institutional arrangements, and a constituency building approach. The strategies also include expansion of road designations and an integrated accessibility strategy that draws upon new data sources from a WikiPlaces network map, an integrated activity study and pedestrian network cost-benefit analysis. In addition to Jakarta specific proposals, a number of proposals are made to advance discourse on walkability more generally. These approaches include decentered analysis of integrated activity, informal economic activity analysis, vernacular placemaking and Asian shared street design. Pedestrians and pedestrian plans traverse diverse physical, administrative and disciplinary spaces in cities of the world. Integrated and multidisciplinary approaches are therefore required to understand and accommodate these key users of public space. In Jakarta, walkability planning has potential to improve urban transportation efficiency while contributing to traffic safety, economic vitality, environmental quality and democratic governance. Successful walkability planning in Jakarta may also provide a model for planning in other cities where Western models of planning are unrealistic, inequitable and inappropriate. Jakartan lessons on walkability planning are particularly relevant, and improvements in walkability are particularly powerful, for cities characterized by relatively low median incomes, high land use densities, a substantial informal sector, rapid urbanization and rapid motorization. By improving walkability planning in Jakarta and other cities of the majority world, policy-makers and planners can move toward more sustainable, socially equitable and efficient cities. |
| Keywords: | Urban Studies and Planning |
| Date: | 2011–09–01 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cdl:uctcwp:qt05p5r596&r=tre |
| By: | Jariyasunant, Jerald; Work, Daniel B.; Kerkez, Branko; Sengupta, Raja; Glaser, Steven; Bayen, Alexandre |
| Abstract: | In this article, we describe the development of atransit trip planner(TTP) for mobile devicescalled Transitr, and evaluate its performance. The system predicts the shortest paths betweenany two points in the transit network using real-time information provided by a third party busarrival prediction system, relying on GPS equipped transit vehicles. Users submit their originand destination through a map-based iPhone application, or through a JavaScript enabled webbrowser. A server implementing a dynamic K-shortest paths algorithm with predicted linktravel times returns personalized route directions for the user, displayed on a map. To assessthe optimality and accuracy of the predicted shortest paths, an a posteriori comparison witha schedule-based transit trip planner and the GPS traces of the transit vehicles is performedon six-hundred origin destination pairs in San Francisco. The results show that routing usingthe predicted bus arrivals marginally increases the accuracy of the total travel time and theoptimality of the route. Suggestions to improve the accuracy and optimality using real-timeinformation are proposed. |
| Keywords: | Urban Studies/Affairs |
| Date: | 2011–09–01 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cdl:uctcwp:qt51t364vz&r=tre |
| By: | Shah, Nilopa; Brueckner, Jan K. |
| Abstract: | This paper develops a simple analytical model of price and frequency competitionamong freight carriers. In the model, the full price faced by a shipper (a goodsproducer) includes the actual shipping price plus an inventory holding cost, whichis inversely proportional to the frequency of shipments offered by the freight carrier. Taking brand loyalty on the part of shippers into account, competing freightcarriers maximize profit by setting prices, frequencies and vehicle carrying capacities. Assuming tractable functional forms, long- and short-run comparative-staticresults are derived to show how the choice variables are affected by the model’sparameters. The paper also provides an efficiency analysis, comparing the equilibrium to the social optimum, and it attempts to explain the phenomenon of excesscapacity in the freight industry. |
| Keywords: | Social Sciences, Other |
| Date: | 2011–09–01 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cdl:uctcwp:qt1n42k26q&r=tre |
| By: | Shoup, Donald |
| Abstract: | “Paying for parking is like going to a prostitute,†George Costanza, one of the most prominent cheapskates in the history of TV, once said. “Why should I pay when, if I apply myself, maybe I can get it for free?†Although most people would probably choose more subtle analogies, this punch line of the short and chubby Seinfeld sidekick aptly sums up most Americans’ attitude toward paying for parking. And where has this attitude led us? Where curb parking is underpriced and overcrowded, a surprisingly large share of traffic may be cruising in search of a place to park. Sixteen studies conducted between 1927 and 2001 found that, on average, 30 percent of the cars in congested traffic on city streets were cruising for parking. For example, when researchers interviewed drivers who were stopped at traffic signals in New York City, they found that 28 percent of the drivers on a street in Manhattan and 45 percent on a street in Brooklyn were cruising for curb parking. In another study, the average time to find a curb space on 15 blocks in the Upper West Side of Manhattan was 3.1 minutes and the average cruising distance was 0.6 kilometers. These findings were used to estimate that cruising for underpriced parking in this small area alone creates about 590,000 excess vehicle kilometers of travel and 295 tons of CO2 per year. |
| Keywords: | Urban Studies/Affairs |
| Date: | 2011–09–01 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cdl:uctcwp:qt6hz481dk&r=tre |
| By: | Schneider, Robert James |
| Abstract: | In the two decades since the United States Congress passed the federal Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act, there has been a surge of interest in making urban transportation systems more sustainable. Many agencies, representing all levels of government, have searched for strategies to reduce private automobile use, including policies to shift local driving to pedestrian and bicycle modes. Progress has been made in a number of communities, but the automobile remains the dominant mode of transportation in all metropolitan regions. Sustainable transportation advocates are especially interested in routine travel, such as shopping and other errands, because it tends to be done frequently and for distances that could be covered realistically by walking or bicycling. According to the 2009 National Household Travel Survey, Americans made more trips for shopping than for any other purpose, including commuting to and from work. One-third of these shopping trips were shorter than two miles (3.2 km). However, 76% of these short shopping trips were made by automobile, while only 21% were made by walking and 1% by bicycling. In order to identify effective strategies to change travel behavior, practitioners need a greater understanding of why people choose certain modes for routine travel. Choosing to walk or bicycle rather than travel by automobile may help individuals get exercise, save money, interact with neighbors, and reduce tailpipe emissions. Yet, in some communities, non-motorized modes may also require more time and physical effort to run a series of errands, be less convenient for carrying packages and traveling in bad weather, and be perceived as having a higher risk of traffic crashes or street crime than driving. A mixed-methods approach was used to develop a more complete understanding of factors that are associated with walking or bicycling rather than driving for routine travel. An intercept survey was implemented to gather travel data from 1,003 customers at retail pharmacy stores in 20 San Francisco Bay Area neighborhoods in fall 2009. Follow-up interviews were conducted with 26 survey participants in spring and summer 2010 to gain a deeper understanding of factors that influenced their transportation decisions. The methodological approach makes several contributions to the body of research on sustainable transportation. For example, the study: Explored multiple categories of factors that may be associated with walking and bicycling, including travel, socioeconomic, attitude, perception, and shopping district characteristics. Few studies of pedestrian or bicycle mode choices have included all of these categories of factors. Statistical models showed that variables in all categories had significant associations with mode choice. Documented and analyzed short pedestrian movements, such as from a parking space to a store entrance or from a bus stop to home. These detailed data provided a greater understanding of pedestrian activity than traditional travel survey analyses. Walking was used as the primary mode for 65% of respondent trips between stops within shopping districts, and 52% of all respondents walked along a street or between stops at some time between leaving and returning home. Maps of respondent pedestrian path density revealed distinct pedestrian activity patterns in different types of shopping districts. Used four different approaches to capture participant travel mode information. Respondents reported the primary mode of transportation they were using on the day of the survey, the mode they typically used, and all modes that they would consider using to travel to the survey store. They also mapped all stops on their tour and said what modes they used between each stop. These four approaches revealed nuanced travel habits and made it possible to correct inaccuracies in self-reported primary travel mode data. Measured and tested fine-grained local environment variables in shopping districts rather than around respondents' homes. These variables characterized the shopping district area (e.g., sidewalks, bicycle facilities, metered parking, and tree canopy coverage), the main commercial roadway (e.g., posted speed limit, number of automobile lanes, and pedestrian crossing distance), and the survey store site (e.g., number of automobile and bicycle parking spaces and distance from the public sidewalk to the store entrance). This dissertation adds to the small number of studies that have explored how the characteristics of activity destinations are related to travel behavior. The study results contribute to the body of knowledge about factors that may encourage people to shift routine travel from automobile to pedestrian or bicycle modes. After controlling for travel factors such as time and cost, socioeconomic characteristics, and individual attitudes, mixed logit models showed that automobile use was negatively associated with higher employment density, smaller parking lots, and metered on-street parking in the shopping district. Walking was positively associated with higher population density, more street tree canopy coverage, lower speed limits, and fewer commercial driveway crossings. The exploratory analysis of a small number of bicycle tours found that bicycling was associated with more extensive bicycle facility networks and more bicycle parking. However, people were more likely to drive when they perceived a high risk of crime. Results also suggest the magnitude of mode shifts that could occur if short- and long-term land use and transportation system changes were made to each study shopping district. The mode choice model representing travel only to and from the study shopping districts (N = 388) was used to estimate respondent mode shares under the following three scenarios: 1) double population and employment densities in each study shopping district, 2) double street tree canopy coverage in each study shopping district, and 3) eliminate half of the automobile parking 3 spaces at the survey store. Based on the model, the combination of these three changes could increase pedestrian mode share among the 388 sample respondents from 43% to 61% and decrease automobile mode share from 50% to 31%. This shift could eliminate 129 (13%) of the 983 respondent vehicle miles traveled (208 of the 1,580 respondent vehicle kilometers traveled), and 110 (36%) of the 308 times respondents parked their automobiles in the shopping district. The mode choice model of walking versus driving within survey shopping districts (N = 286) was used to test the combination of the following scenarios: 1) cluster separated stores around shared parking lots, 2) consolidate commercial driveways so that there are half as many driveway crossings along the main commercial roadway, 3) reduce all main commercial roadway speed limits to 25 miles per hour (40 kilometers per hour), and 4) install metered parking in all shopping districts. These changes could increase the percentage of the 286 sample respondents walking between shopping district activities from 32% to 54%. This shift could eliminate 29 (38%) of the 76 respondent vehicle miles traveled (47 of the 122 respondent vehicle kilometers traveled), and 105 (22%) of the 469 times respondents parked their automobiles in the shopping district. Note that these forecasted mode shifts are illustrative examples based on cross-sectional data and do not account for the process of modifying travel behavior habits. Qualitative interviews provided a foundation for a proposed Theory of Routine Mode Choice Decisions. This five-step theory also drew from survey results and other mode choice theories in the transportation and psychology fields. The first step, 1) awareness and availability, determines which modes are viewed as possible choices for routine travel. The next three steps, 2) basic safety and security, 3) convenience and cost, and 4) enjoyment, assess situational tradeoffs between modes in the choice set and are supported by many of the statisticallysignificant factors in the mode choice models. The final step, 5) habit, reinforces previous choices and closes the decision process loop. Socioeconomic characteristics explain differences in how individuals view each step in the process. Understanding each step in the mode choice decision process can help planners, designers, engineers, and other policy-makers implement a comprehensive set of strategies that may be able to shift routine automobile travel to pedestrian and bicycle modes. |
| Keywords: | Urban Studies and Planning |
| Date: | 2011–05–01 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cdl:uctcwp:qt06v2g6dh&r=tre |
| By: | Ng, Chen Feng; Small, Kenneth |
| Abstract: | This paper investigates differentiated design standards as a source of capacity additions that are more affordable and have smaller aesthetic and environmental impacts than modern expressways. We consider several tradeoffs, including narrow versus wide lanes and shoulders on an expressway of a given total width, and high-speed expressway versus lower-speed arterial. We quantify the situations in which off-peak traffic is sufficiently great to make it worthwhile to spend more on construction, or to give up some capacity, in order to provide very high off-peak speeds even if peak speeds are limited by congestion. We also consider the implications of differing accident rates. The results support expanding the range of highway designs that are considered when adding capacity to ameliorate urban road congestion. |
| Keywords: | Engineering, General, highway design, capacity, free-flow speed, parkway |
| Date: | 2011–05–17 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cdl:uctcwp:qt1nz5904j&r=tre |
| By: | Shoup, Donald |
| Abstract: | Practical policies can mean big benefits for the streets on which they are enacted. With performance-based parking prices, local revenue return, and parking increment finance, everybody wins. This chapter was adapted from a speech delivered at the Urban Land Institute’s Great Streets Symposium in Washington, D.C., January 17-20, 2006. How can curb parking contribute to a great street? To help create great streets, a city should (1) charge performance-based prices for curb parking and (2) return the revenue to the metered districts to pay for added public services. With these two policies, curb parking will help to create great streets, improve transportation, and increase the economic vitality of cities. |
| Keywords: | Urban Studies/Affairs |
| Date: | 2011–09–01 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cdl:uctcwp:qt1mc080gg&r=tre |