| Abstract: |
Analyzing the neutrality of referees during twelve German premier league (1st
Bundesliga) football seasons, this paper documents evidence that social forces
influence agents’ preferences and decisions. Those, who are appointed to be
impartial, tend to favor the home team as they systematically award more
injury time in close matches when the home team is behind. Referees also tend
to favor the home team in decisions to award goals and penalty kicks. The
composition of the crowd affects the size and the direction of the bias. The
intensity of social pressure as measured by the crowd’s proximity to the field
determines how strongly referees’ decisions are influenced. Not all agents
are, however, affected to the same degree by social pressure. |