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on South East Asia |
| By: | Harold Glenn A. Valera (Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas); Mark J. Holmes (University of Waikato); Vic K. Delloro (Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas) |
| Abstract: | In this paper, we address the challenge of using aggregate data to study the effects of fuel and rice prices on overall inflation in emerging markets. Our quantile regression analysis using the Philippines' province-level monthly data from 1996 to 2024 finds a strong impact during periods of higher inflation. Indeed, this impact is verified in Indonesia, Thailand, and India. We also find that inflation targeting and rice tariffication reduce such an impact and that high-poverty and rice-deficit areas exhibit a higher fall in rice inflation effect post-tariffication. In addition, the impact of remittances on Philippine inflation is nonlinear, while it is asymmetric for the other three countries. |
| JEL: | E31 E52 C32 |
| Date: | 2025–04 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:bhd:dpaper:202502 |
| By: | Pham, Dung Van; Napasintuwong, Orachos |
| Abstract: | Southeast Asia faces increasing food security challenges arising from rapid urbanization, rising food prices, and low productivity growth. While Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) policies are widely promoted as a cornerstone for transforming agrifood systems, inadequate evidence of how specific STI interventions translate into measurable food security outcomes explains uneven impacts and raises concerns about inefficient resource allocation. This paper aims to comparatively assess the achievements of food security outcomes under the agri-food STI policy implementation across the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) member states. Data were collected from international and national available sources and analyzed based on a framework of impact assessment. The findings reveal substantial heterogeneity in STI capacities and their effectiveness in improving food security. Malaysia and Vietnam emerged as the strongest performers overall, supported by relatively robust innovation systems, higher food access, and improved utilization outcomes. Vietnam, in particular, demonstrated the most effective transformation of agri-food STI inputs into outcomes, achieving the highest agricultural total factor productivity (TFP) growth and gains in food production and nutrition indicators. Indonesia showed large-scale agricultural output and innovation activity but exhibited fragmentation and underutilization of its research capacity. Thailand maintained stable production and affordability; however, the country faced persistent challenges in nutrition and food utilization. The Philippines had low growth due to limited agri-food STI investment, weaker human capital, and higher vulnerability to external shocks. Across all countries, food stability and nutrition-related outcomes remain the weakest dimensions, highlighting the limitations of production-oriented STI approaches. The results suggest that agri-food STI policies contribute most effectively to food security if they are well-coordinated, adequately funded, and aligned with inclusive objectives. Strengthening governance, enhancing human capital, and rebalancing STI strategies toward resilience and equity are critical for achieving sustainable food security in ASEAN. |
| Keywords: | Agricultural and Food Policy |
| Date: | 2026 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ags:nccc26:409062 |
| By: | Emmanuel S. De Dios (School of Economics, University of the Philippines Diliman) |
| Abstract: | We present an historical background and narrative of Spanish policies affecting Philippine trade that maps them onto the changing landscape of influential ideas and emerging political and economic exigencies confronting the colonizing power. An integral or global perspective is adopted that complements a purely colonial or insular viewpoint. This provides a fuller and at times novel understanding of the changes observed in Philippine commercial history during the period, the intended purposes of colonial policies, and the reasons for their failure or success. |
| Keywords: | 16.C-19.C Spanish colonial commercial policy; Manila-Acapulco galleon trade; Mexico City merchant lobby; Atlantic flota system; Spanish mercantilism; Bourbon reforms; Royal Philippine Company; Consulate of Manila; late Spanish liberal trade and investment |
| JEL: | N75 N73 |
| Date: | 2025–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:phs:dpaper:202507 |
| By: | Karl Robert L. Jandoc (School of Economics, University of the Philippines Diliman); Arturo Jr. Martinez (Asian Development Bank); Joseph Albert Niño Bulan (Asian Development Bank); Rhea Molato (Asian Development Bank); Aileen Guyos (Asian Development Bank) |
| Abstract: | Non-traditional platform work has grown rapidly in the Philippines amid technological change and longstanding labor-market constraints. Using nationally representative data from the 2025 Jobs and Skills Survey (JSS), this study provides a detailed profile of workers engaged in these emerging forms of employment. The JSS captures worker characteristics, motivations, task content, digital engagement, job quality, social protection access, and workplace conditions. Results show that platform workers are disproportionately young, urban, and highly educated, with strong geographic concentration in NCR and major urban corridors. Motivations reveal a coexistence of opportunity and vulnerability: flexibility and autonomy attract many workers—especially women and home-based freelancers—while drivers and delivery workers often enter due to limited job alternatives. Platform work exhibits lower Routine Task Intensity and strong digital complementarity but also substantial overskilling, indicating persistent skill underutilization. Despite high job satisfaction, platform workers—particularly those in delivery, driving, and outside-home services—face significantly lower access to employer-provided pension, health insurance, and separation benefits, even after controlling for worker and firm characteristics. These findings underscore the heterogeneity of non-traditional work and highlight the need for balanced policy responses that expand worker protection without constraining the flexibility and innovation that make these jobs attractive for many Filipinos. |
| Keywords: | platform work; non-traditional employment; skills; tasks; employment benefits; digital technology; Philippines |
| JEL: | J22 J24 J46 J81 |
| Date: | 2026–03 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:phs:dpaper:202602 |
| By: | Jan Carlo B. Punongbayan (School of Economics, University of the Philippines Diliman) |
| Abstract: | I use event-level data from the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED) to estimate the impact of Rodrigo Duterte’s “war on drugs†on political violence in the Philippines. Constructing a balanced panel of 80 provinces observed weekly from January 2016 through June 2017, I estimate event-study and difference-in-differences models that compare drug-war-tagged fatalities against a within-country placebo—non-drug-war political violence (battles, explosions, and non-drug violence against civilians). The headline finding is that the placebo series exhibits no discontinuity around either the election or the inauguration, while drug-war fatalities show a sharp, immediate spike. The violence increase is there-fore specific to the drug war, rather than reflecting general conflict trends, ACLED source-coverage changes, or other simultaneous shocks. As a precondition for this comparison, I show that the relevant event date is the May 9 presidential election, not the June 30 inauguration. I discuss identification challenges including anticipation effects, the endogeneity of ACLED’s tagging, and the absence of cross-regional treatment variation. |
| Keywords: | Philippines; war on drugs; event study; political violence; Duterte |
| JEL: | K42 D74 O17 |
| Date: | 2026–05 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:phs:dpaper:202604 |
| By: | Christoff Scherrer (Kassel Institute for Sustainability & Global Labour University) |
| Abstract: | This paper explores the possibility of using voluntary carbon credits to retire coal-fired power plants early. It introduces carbon emission trading using the example of the substantial European emissions trading market. It presents recommendations for phasing out coal power plants and discusses the challenges of calculating plant proprietors' losses and carbon emission savings. It also outlines the specific challenges of voluntary carbon credits and the need to monitor carbon credit deals. These issues are illustrated with the world’s first Energy Transition Mechanism transaction for the early retirement of a coal plant owned by ACEN in the Philippines: the South Luzon Thermal Energy Corporation (SLTEC). It analyzes the financial transactions carried out by the power plant owner and the envisaged use of voluntary carbon credits. The paper concludes that there are many obstacles to moving beyond a few pilot projects. |
| Keywords: | energy transition; voluntary carbon credits; coal power plant; Philippines |
| JEL: | Q54 Q58 |
| Date: | 2025–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:phs:dpaper:202505 |
| By: | Marianne J. Rodriguez (Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas); John Paolo R. Rivera (Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas); Ivan Cenon V. Bernardo (Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas); Ramona Maria L. Miral (Philippine Institute for Development Studies); Mark Gerald C. Ruiz (BSP Research Academy) |
| Abstract: | In the Philippines, the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in an unprecedented contraction in gross domestic product—the largest decline across Southeast Asian nations. Beginning in March 2020, the government implemented a series of strict lockdowns to mitigate the spread of the virus. However, these measures led to prolonged disruptions in economic activity and, at the corporate level, declines in revenues, establishment closures, and mass layoffs. We analyzed the impact of the pandemic on corporate performance and employment using a unique dataset for the Philippines that combines firm-level financial data, establishment‑level employment data, and business restrictions data defined for each industry‑province‑year combination. We constructed a panel of around 2, 500 firms and 3, 900 establishments covering the period 2018–2022. Using firm fixed-effects regression, we found that mandatory business closures had a large negative impact on corporate revenues, with a full‑year closure resulting in a 65.0‑percent reduction in annual revenues, or a 5.4‑percent reduction for each month of closure. For liquidity‑constrained firms, the decline is larger in magnitude, suggesting that the lack of liquidity impairs a firm’s ability to cope with the crisis and withstand business closures. While revenues began to recover in 2022, lingering adverse effects on profitability and employment remain. Finally, we found that the pandemic had a limited adverse impact on firms’ financial positions. |
| JEL: | D22 E65 G32 L25 |
| Date: | 2025–12 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:bhd:dpaper:202513 |
| By: | Jan Carlo B. Punongbayan (School of Economics, University of the Philippines Diliman) |
| Abstract: | This paper estimates the pass-through of world oil price innovations to Philippine fuel prices and headline CPI, and decomposes total CPI pass-through into a fuel-basket component and a residual non-fuel component. Using a structural VAR and 25 years of monthly pump price data, I find that a 10 percentage point increase in year-on-year oil price growth is associated with about a 4.9 percentage point increase in gasoline price growth and a 6.6 percentage point increase in diesel price growth at 12 months, while the corresponding effect on headline CPI inflation is about 0.65 percentage points. The residual non-fuel component accounts for the larger share of the CPI response, though its estimated magnitude is somewhat sensitive to the estimation method. Results are robust to extensions with the exchange rate and rice prices, local projections with HAC inference, alternative data transformations, sub-period splits around the TRAIN Law, and an alternative pump price series. |
| Keywords: | oil price pass-through; consumer prices; structural VAR; Philippines |
| JEL: | E31 Q43 C32 F31 |
| Date: | 2026–03 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:phs:dpaper:202603 |
| By: | Jasmin E. Dacio (Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas); Reizle Jade C. Platitas (Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas); Sarah Jane A. Castañares (Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas); Sanjeev A. Parmanand (Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas) |
| Abstract: | This paper investigates whether the exchange rate pass-through (ERPT) to inflation varies with the direction and magnitude of change in the nominal exchange rate. Using non-linear and multiple threshold autoregressive distributive lag models, we reconsidered the premise of linearity and symmetry often assumed in the literature on ERPT. We found that in the case of the Philippines, the long-run ERPT is larger and statistically significant during depreciation episodes. Meanwhile, pass-through is limited during appreciation episodes, possibly reflecting the downward stickiness of prices. Further, ERPT tends to be higher at large enough depreciations while it remains limited even during large appreciations. After accounting for asymmetry, the results are consistent with previous studies establishing the decline of ERPT since the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas adopted an inflation-targeting framework in 2002. |
| JEL: | E31 E50 F31 F47 |
| Date: | 2025–12 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:bhd:dpaper:202516 |
| By: | Do, Thi Thanh Duong; Nguyen, Thi Thiem; Luu, Van Duy; Nguyen, Thanh Phong |
| Abstract: | Macadamia has recently emerged as a high-value tree nut crop in tropical and subtropical mountain regions, particularly in the Northwest of Vietnam (including Dien Bien, Son La and Lai Chau province). In Dien Bien province, where agriculture is dominated by smallholder and ethnic minority farming systems, macadamia development is increasingly promoted as a pathway for income diversification, ecological restoration, and climate resilience. However, the rapid expansion of this crop also raises critical sustainability concerns that require systematic assessment. This study evaluates the opportunities and risks associated with sustainable macadamia production in mountain food systems, using a comprehensive analytical framework that integrates environmental, economic, and social dimensions. The research draws on field surveys, stakeholder interviews, and secondary data to assess production performance, livelihood impacts, and ecological implications in Dien Bien province. Key indicators include income generation, land-use efficiency, soil conservation capacity, market integration, and institutional support mechanisms. The findings indicate that macadamia cultivation offers significant opportunities for improving household incomes, particularly when integrated with agroforestry systems. It contributes to soil protection, enhances carbon sequestration potential, and supports the transition toward more climate-resilient farming systems. In addition, the development of value chains and market linkages has begun to create new economic opportunities for local communities. Nevertheless, the study also identifies several major risks. These include market price volatility, limited technical knowledge among farmers, insufficient access to quality planting materials, and weak extension services. Social challenges such as land tenure insecurity and unequal benefit distribution may further constrain sustainable outcomes. From an environmental perspective, inappropriate land conversion and monocropping practices could undermine biodiversity and long-term ecosystem stability. The paper concludes that achieving sustainable macadamia production in mountainous Northwest Vietnam requires integrated policy interventions, strengthened cooperative models, and the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices. Enhancing technical capacity, improving market governance, and ensuring inclusive participation of ethnic minority communities are essential to balance economic benefits with environmental integrity and social equity in the region’s evolving mountain food systems. |
| Keywords: | Environmental Economics and Policy |
| Date: | 2026 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ags:nccc26:409070 |
| By: | E. Annette Balaoing-Pelkmans (School of Economics, University of the Philippines Diliman) |
| Abstract: | This discussion paper examines the emerging Pax Silica initiative from the perspective of the Philippine Tatak Pinoy Strategy (TPS) and associated consultations involving the semiconductor, electronics, and IT-BPM sectors. It argues that the developmental significance of Philippine participation will depend less on investment attraction alone than on whether the country can progressively deepen domestic technological, engineering, and organizational capabilities within emerging semiconductor and AI-related ecosystems. Drawing from stakeholder consultations and comparative industrial-policy literature, the paper identifies fragmented institutional support systems, weak cross-agency coordination, financing constraints, workforce mismatches, and discontinuities in government-industry collaboration as major barriers to industrial upgrading. At the same time, the consultations also point to the gradual expansion of higher-value capabilities in engineering services, cloud systems, cybersecurity, analytics, industrial software, and advanced digital operations. The paper argues that semiconductor and AI-related industries are substantially more coordination-intensive than earlier generations of export manufacturing. Long-term competitiveness increasingly depends on workforce systems, applied research capability, supplier development, financing systems, digital infrastructure, and sustained institutional coordination across firms, universities, industry organizations, and government agencies. From this perspective, Pax Silica should be approached not simply as an investment-attraction initiative, but as a potential platform for long-term capability deepening, ecosystem integration, and institutional learning. |
| Keywords: | industrial upgrading; semiconductor ecosystems; artificial intelligence; Tatak Pinoy Strategy; capability deepening; institutional coordination; industrial policy; Philippines |
| JEL: | O14 O25 O38 L52 F63 O53 |
| Date: | 2026–06 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:phs:dpaper:202606 |
| By: | John Paul P. Corpus (Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas); Ma. Christina F. Epetia (Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas); Margarita Debuque-Gonzales (Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas) |
| Abstract: | This paper studies the response of private sector nominal wage growth to changes in unemployment in the 17 regions of the Philippines during the COVID-19 pandemic. We construct a quarterly regional panel of annual wage growth that controls for changes in worker composition covering Q1 2018 to Q3 2023. Using fixed effects estimation, we find a clear procyclical relationship between regional wage growth and regional unemployment fluctuations during the pandemic. This negative association is both asymmetric—driven mainly by episodes of rising unemployment—and heterogeneous—being strongest among male and less educated wage workers. Such a relationship is absent in the immediate pre- and post-pandemic periods. Our findings underscore the exceptional labor market conditions during the pandemic and show evidence of the pandemic’s uneven labor market impacts. |
| JEL: | E24 O53 |
| Date: | 2025–12 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:bhd:dpaper:202517 |
| By: | Phyoe, Nyein Nyein; Myint, Theingi; Lynn, Honey Lynn; Htwe, Nyein Nyein |
| Abstract: | Rice sector in Myanmar plays a vital role in food security and the socio-economic status of farmers. Crop insurance is an important factor in risk management for both companies and farmers involved in certified rice seed production. A crop insurance program was introduced as a Weather-Based Index Insurance (WBII) model by the Myanmar Insurance Department in cooperation with the Myanmar Agricultural Development Bank in Myanmar in 2024. The role of crop insurance in the bioeconomy is to encourage the adoption of improved and climate-resilient seeds, to enhance the confidence of farmers and companies to invest, and to reduce production losses by promoting climate-smart practices, thereby supporting a sustainable bioeconomy in Myanmar. The main objectives of this study were to examine certified rice seed production of private sector in Mandalay Region and to investigate the perception level of crop insurance among private seed companies. Private seed companies in the Mandalay Region were purposively selected for this study because most seed production farms are located in these townships, and the WBII model was also introduced in these areas. Ten questionnaire statements on crop insurance were used to survey seed companies, asking them to indicate their level of agreement with each statement on a 5-point Likert scale. Certified rice seeds are being produced by ten rice seed companies in the study area and marketed to many different regions of Myanmar. The perception level analysis showed that 50% of the seed companies had a high level of perception, while the remaining 50% had a medium level of perception. Regarding the agreement level of seed companies on the role of crop insurance in promoting a sustainable bioeconomy, the highest percentage (80%) agreed that crop insurance can protect seed companies against the risks of crop losses caused by climate change. These findings demonstrated that private sector and farmers should collaborate through a contract farming system for rice seed production, integrated with crop insurance, in order to help both parties overcome challenges for advancing sustainable bioeconomy. With supportive policies and collaboration between the public and private sectors, crop insurance can significantly strengthen Myanmar’s agriculture. |
| Keywords: | Risk and Uncertainty |
| Date: | 2026 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ags:nccc26:409073 |
| By: | Sangkumchaliang, Parichard; Sriprachote, Anongnat; Phontusang, Porntip; Saepaisan, Suwita |
| Abstract: | Coffee is a globally significant economic crop and a major commodity in international agricultural trade. In Northeastern Thailand, Loei Province has emerged as a primary hub for Robusta coffee cultivation, contributing to local economic resilience as farmers pivot from traditional crops like sugarcane and rubber. This research investigates farmer profiles, production management practices, and market channels of Robusta coffee farmers in Loei Province. The study utilized a survey of 39 farmers, revealing that the majority are experienced practitioners (average age 51 years) who primarily cultivate coffee as a secondary occupation (82.10%). Financial investment is largely self-funded (71.80%), while knowledge acquisition relies heavily on peer-to-peer advice (54.80%). Strategic motivations include income generation (18.60%) and the utilization of vacant land (15.50%). Regarding production management, the study identifies a significant reliance on rainfall (79.50%) and a high prevalence of pest infestations (87.20%), particularly stem and berry borers. Furthermore, a critical gap in quality control was observed, as 87.20% of farmers do not measure moisture content, leading to a 64.5% defect rate in coffee beans. In terms of marketing, most produce is sold as green beans (91.0%), with a notable price disparity between middlemen (65 THB/kg) and community enterprises (120 THB/kg). The findings suggest that while Loei holds strong potential, policy interventions are required to improve irrigation infrastructure, enhance pest management, and strengthen community-based value chains to meet national productivity targets and international quality standards. |
| Keywords: | Marketing |
| Date: | 2026 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ags:nccc26:409069 |
| By: | Nguyen, Mau Nhat Nam; Nguyen, Phuong Le |
| Abstract: | This study examines relationships of RTC food consumption and gender division in meal preparation in urban families in Vietnam. Against the backdrop of increasing female labor force participation and time constraints in modern households, RTC foods have emerged as a convenient solution that may influence both consumption behavior and intra-family dynamics. Using primary data collected from 152 respondents in Hanoi through semi-structured face-to-face interviews, the descriptive statistics and ordered logistic regression are employed to analyze patterns of RTC consumption and their determinants. The findings reveal a high level of RTC food adoption, with over 88% of respondents reporting usage, primarily motivated by time-saving benefits. RTC foods are generally used as a complement rather than a substitute for traditional home cooking. Empirical results indicate that gender remains a significant factor in shaping consumption behavior, particularly through women’s dominant role in food purchasing decisions. At the same time, the use of RTC foods contributes to reducing meal preparation time, thereby alleviating domestic burdens, especially for women. Evidence also suggests modest shifts in gender roles, with increased male participation in certain household activities, although disparities persist. The regression analysis further highlights the importance of demographic and behavioral factors, including age, education, and perceived time savings, in influencing RTC consumption frequency. Younger individuals and those experiencing greater time constraints are more likely to adopt RTC foods. |
| Keywords: | Consumer/Household Economics |
| Date: | 2026 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ags:nccc26:409071 |
| By: | Razak, Shazrul Ekhmar Abdul; Sevasamy, Amerul Rasshiq Muhammad Syazwi; Ayzan, Muhammad Adam Khairul; Buda, Mark |
| Abstract: | Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) has been introduced as a sustainable aquaculture system that integrates fed species, such as fish or shrimp, with extractive species, such as seaweed, mussels or crabs. This system has the potential to reduce nutrient waste, improve water quality, diversify farm income and support a more resource-efficient aquaculture sector. Despite the benefits, IMTA adoption remains relatively low among aquaculture farmers in Malaysia. This study examines aquaculture farmers’ knowledge, attitude and perception toward IMTA adoption, with emphasis on farmers in the central region of Peninsular Malaysia. A quantitative survey was conducted using a questionnaire distribution between August and October 2025. A total of 66 usable responses was obtained from aquaculture farmers. The data were analysed using descriptive statistics, index analysis and binary logistic regression. The findings show that farmers’ knowledge of IMTA was still limited, with 37.9% classified at the low knowledge level and 36.4% at the moderate level. Contrastingly, farmers showed a highly favourable attitude toward IMTA, with 84.8% classified at the high attitude level. Their perception was mostly moderate, indicating that farmers recognised the potential benefits of IMTA but remained cautious about practical implementation. In terms of adoption intention, 62.1% of respondents indicated that they intended to adopt IMTA. The logistic regression result further shows that attitude and perception were significant predictors of intention to adopt IMTA, while knowledge was not significant. The findings suggest that IMTA promotion in Malaysia should not only focus on knowledge only, but also on practical training, demonstration farms and clear technical support to improve farmers’ confidence in adopting the system. |
| Keywords: | Institutional and Behavioral Economics |
| Date: | 2026 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ags:nccc26:409063 |
| By: | Hinh T. Dinh |
| Abstract: | This paper examines the evolution of China’s services sector between 2012 and 2022, analyzing the country’s structural transformation based on a novel three-tier taxonomy: knowledge services (KS), enabling services (ES), and local services (LS). Using sixteen quantitative indicators from OECD databases, the study evaluates China’s transition in comparison to the EU15 benchmark, highlighting three core challenges: manufacturing rebalancing, labor absorption, and global integration. Three primary findings emerge. First, while manufacturing’s share of GDP in China has stabilized at approximately 29% due to active industrial policy, manufacturing employment has decoupled from output as automation has reduced labor intensity. Second, the services sector has absorbed this released labor, but the composition is problematic: local services (LS) have absorbed the bulk of new jobs at low productivity levels, while high-productivity gains in enabling services (ES) have generated limited direct employment. Knowledge services (KS) remain dynamic but are currently too small and skill-constrained to serve as a primary growth engine. Third, China’s external posture has shifted toward an ‘inward turn’ in direct services exports, countered by a strengthening indirect upstream channel via which producer services are increasingly embedded in other countries’ exports. The paper concludes that China faces a critical productivity/employment trade-off: a transition dominated by local services preserves social stability through job creation, but risks a structural ceiling on aggregate growth. Successful rebalancing will require resolving the structural conditions—specifically skill availability, geographic matching, and openness to foreign inputs—necessary to scale high-productivity knowledge services. |
| Date: | 2026–07 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ocp:rpaeco:pp29_26 |