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on South East Asia |
| By: | Davis, Christopher G; Cessna, Jerry |
| Abstract: | Food demand in Southeast Asia (SEA) is expected to grow in the coming decades, creating opportunities for exporters of dairy products. This study examines the prospects for growth of U.S. dairy exports to the SEA region, and how the U.S. potential to gain or lose market share varies from one Southeast Asian country to another and among products. |
| Keywords: | International Relations/Trade, Industrial Organization |
| Date: | 2020–12 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ags:uersrr:327204&r=sea |
| By: | Abrigo, Michael Ralph M. |
| Abstract: | Cross-country comparison of education financing is often limited to public sector spending, which only provides a partial view of the global education financing landscape. Using recent National Transfer Accounts estimates of public and private education consumption for 74 economies around the world, we uncovered important trends in education financing in the Philippines and benchmarked its performance against its peers. Based on a synthetic measure of basic education consumption, we showed that education spending per person in the country has grown robustly over the past 25 years, even surpassing the growth in per capita income. Despite this feat, the Philippines’ education spending levels trail behind its regional and aspirational peers, which contributes to its poor performance in international standardized student assessments. While such is the case, there may still be opportunities to improve schooling quality by identifying and scaling cost-effective education interventions that better translate resource inputs to desired education outcomes. Comments to this paper are welcome within 60 days from the date of posting. Email publications@pids.gov.ph |
| Keywords: | education financing; Philippines; National Transfer Account |
| Date: | 2021 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:phd:dpaper:dp_2021-27&r=sea |
| By: | Ulep, Valerie Gilbert T.; Casas, Lyle Daryll D. |
| Abstract: | This paper has two objectives: (1) assess the health sector performance of the Philippines relative to other ASEAN member states and (2) assess regional health integration and cooperation in the Philippines and identify challenges and opportunities. The Philippines is lagging in critical health outcome and access indicators in the region. This is a reflection of the long-standing challenges in terms of health financing, health service delivery, governance, and health human resources. Health integration and cooperation could be instrumental in achieving health system goals. While the country has made significant stride in facilitating regional integration and cooperation in recent years, challenges related to regulations, infrastructure, and implementation remain. Comments to this paper are welcome within 60 days from date of posting. Email publications@mail.pids.gov.ph. |
| Keywords: | regional integration; cooperation; ASEAN; Philippines |
| Date: | 2021 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:phd:dpaper:dp_2021-16&r=sea |
| By: | Reyes, Celia M. |
| Abstract: | The Philippines aspires to be an upper middle-income country by 2022 as stated in the 2017–2022 Philippine Development Plan. It has also committed to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), where the first goal is to eradicate extreme poverty by 2030. This paper examines the performance of the country in poverty reduction. It also examines the reasons for the recent performance, including the pattern of economic growth, numerous shocks experienced by the country, and government policies and programs. With the COVID-19 pandemic, the recent gains will likely be wiped out. It also provides some recommendations to accelerate the rate of poverty reduction. Comments to this paper are welcome within 60 days from the date of posting. Email publications@pids.gov.ph. |
| Keywords: | poverty; social protection; Covid-19 pandemic; decomposition; chronic and transient poverty; risk management tools; interoperable digital information system; shocks |
| Date: | 2021 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:phd:dpaper:dp_2021-42&r=sea |
| By: | Quimba, Francis Mark A.; Barral, Mark Anthony A.; Andrada, Abigail E. |
| Abstract: | The Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (RCEP) gathers 10 ASEAN countries and five partners, namely, the Republic of Korea, China, Japan, New Zealand, and Australia. RCEP covers a market of 2.2 billion consumers and accounts for more than 30 percent of the global GDP. The agreement was signed last November 15, 2020 through a video conference with the abovementioned countries. RCEP is the largest free trade agreement and can be a catalyst for economic development for the Philippines. However, there are economic and political concerns being raised against RCEP. This paper contributes to the discussion on RCEP by providing a policy tool that calculates the impact of the trade agreement on exports and GDP. The calculations show that RCEP has a positive impact on Philippine exports and GDP. Other top gainers would be Vietnam and Korea. Comments to this paper are welcome within 60 days from the date of posting. Email publications@pids.gov.ph |
| Keywords: | regional integration; trade; sustainable development; digital |
| Date: | 2021 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:phd:dpaper:dp_2021-35&r=sea |
| By: | Debuque-Gonzales, Margarita |
| Abstract: | The Philippines entered its deepest recession in post-war history in 2020, with output declining by 9.6 percent. Coming up with a strategy on how to best manage the economy and deal with the fallout of the public health shock, especially on the weaker segments of society, became the biggest challenge of the country's economic policymakers. This chapter/paper looks more closely at that episode, dissecting the macroeconomic impact of the coronavirus, viewing it up close through its impact on households and firms, and then chronicling and reviewing the macroeconomic policy responses of government. It ends by summarizing the lessons to carry and the options on the path forward—for the near future—as the country continues to struggle with the pandemic, and for when it enters a more normalized (post-pandemic) world. Comments to this paper are welcome within 60 days from the date of posting. Email publications@pids.gov.ph. |
| Keywords: | Philippine economy; macroeconomic impact;COVID-19 pandemic; public health shock; macroeconomic policy response |
| Date: | 2021 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:phd:dpaper:dp_2021-39&r=sea |
| By: | Jaretzky, Huong; Liebenehm, Sabine; Waibel, Hermann |
| Abstract: | With the increasing complexity of farming in the developing countries in Asia and the growing challenge arising from climate change, management, technical knowledge, and skills become more and more important for smallholder farmers. So far, little is known about how knowledge, skills, and cognitive abilities of farm decision-makers affect agricultural productivity. Most empirical studies lack the necessary parameters to adequately measure knowledge and skills and often rely on simple parameters like educational attainment and years of formal schooling. However, to generate a better understanding of how knowledge and skills enable farmers to meet the challenges of increasingly obstacle farming environments, more direct measures of education are needed. This paper investigates the impact of farmers’ knowledge on agricultural productivity by making use of specific agricultural knowledge questions and management tests conducted with 1,290 small-scale farmers in two provinces in Thailand and Vietnam, carried out in 2014. Applying OLS and 2SLS approaches and combining the knowledge and skills test results with productivity data of later waves allows for identifying the effect of agricultural knowledge and skills on agricultural productivity. Results show that farmers’ specific agriculture knowledge is significantly and positively associated with profits but significantly negative with yields and total input costs. Hence, better farmers may strive for optimal instead of maximum yields, are more judicious in the use of inputs, and as a result, make more money in rice production. |
| Keywords: | Education; Knowledge; Skills; Human Capital; Agricultural Productivity |
| JEL: | D83 O15 I25 |
| Date: | 2022–11 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:han:dpaper:dp-702&r=sea |
| By: | Ute Rink; Theresa Rollwage |
| Abstract: | This paper investigates individual time preferences between individuals living in a disability household and those who live in a non-disability household in Vietnam. Using randomized primes together with experimental tasks to elicit time preferences, our empirical results show that individuals living in a disability household are (i) more likely to be present biased, and (ii) more patient. The effects are even more pronounced when the disability happened recently (within the last 8 years). These findings show causal evidence that time preferences differ among more vulnerable groups of society and may be one cause for their often observed adverse socioeconomic conditions. |
| Keywords: | Impact; Disability, Time preferences, Priming, Vietnam |
| JEL: | D01 D91 I14 |
| Date: | 2022–09 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:tvs:wpaper:wp-027&r=sea |
| By: | Manh Hung Do; Trung Thanh Nguyen; Ulrike Grote |
| Abstract: | Since the global food price crisis between 2007 and 2008, governments in developing countries such as Vietnam have paid more attention to food security issues. The government of Vietnam has issued policies to sustain rice land and imposed restrictions upon the transformation of rice land to ensure food security. Land consolidation is important to increase the economies of scale in farming, and understanding its determinants and effects is useful for policy-makers to support agricultural transformation. In this study, we investigate factors affecting the voluntary participation of rice growers in land consolidation and examine the impacts of this participation on crop production costs, poverty, and rural transformation. Our results show that land consolidation is driven by farming efficiency. It significantly decreases land preparation and harvest costs, increases farm income, and reduces poverty. We conclude that land consolidation should be promoted to facilitate the redistribution of farm land from farmers who want to leave agriculture to those who continue to work in agriculture. The redistribution of farmland promotes agricultural transformation by reallocating labor from farm to non-farm sectors. |
| Keywords: | Rural transformation, Land fragmentation, Non-farm income, Poverty reduction, Simultaneous regression |
| JEL: | D01 O12 Q12 |
| Date: | 2022–11 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:tvs:wpaper:wp-028&r=sea |
| By: | Palma, J.; Pincus, J. |
| Abstract: | The middle-income trap was initially interpreted as an inevitable slowdown in economic growth as countries approach the technological frontier. Yet growth in Latin America (LA) stalled at low levels of labour productivity – about half of the levels of the technological leaders. Productivity growth in middle-income Southeast Asia also decelerated after the East Asian Crisis even though income per capita in these countries is lower than in LA. From our perspective, one of the key question in development economics is why in so few emerging countries the level of labour productivity have managed to break through the 50 percent barrier vis-à -vis that of the technological leaders. That is, why only very few have been able to sustain productivity gains long enough to get close of achieving high-income status. The main issue is the inability of countries to “upgrade†their growth strategies when the existing one have run their course and become exhausted. Nicholas Kaldor’s argument that manufacturing has the greatest scope to realize increasing returns to scale remains true, even in today’s decentralised, fragmented and niche-oriented manufacturing systems, but the limited size of domestic markets in the great majority of middle-income countries means that they must prioritise manufactured exports using all of the policy instruments still available to them. |
| Date: | 2022–11–09 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cam:camdae:2267&r=sea |
| By: | Jochen Hartmann (University of Paderborn); Matthias Pelster (University of Paderborn); Soenke Sievers (University of Paderborn) |
| Abstract: | Shareholder activism has sharply increased over the past decade and spread both across countries and among different types of investors. Today, 50% of all engagements occur outside North America, with non-hedge fund investors accounting for one-third of all engagements. We investigate the effects and characteristics of hedge fund and non-hedge fund activism using an international dataset of 2,689 activist engagements across 44 countries between 2008 and 2019. Activist investments in North America, on average, yield the largest immediate positive stock market returns and buy-and-hold returns, followed by engagements in Europe and the Asia-Pacific region. In North America, short-term abnormal returns for hedge funds are at a similar level as those for non-hedge funds, but in Europe and the Asia-Pacific region, they are higher for non-hedge funds. However, globally, hedge funds achieve higher buy-and hold returns and are more successful than non-hedge funds in implementing change in target firms. Over time, our results suggest unfulfilled investor expectations, as announcement returns are increasing but (abnormal) buy-and-hold returns and the impact on performance measures of target firms are decreasing for both hedge funds and non-hedge funds. |
| Keywords: | Shareholder activism, international evidence, hedge funds, non-hedge fund activism, institutional investors |
| JEL: | G34 G23 G15 |
| Date: | 2022–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pdn:dispap:98&r=sea |
| By: | Ulep, Valerie Gilbert T. |
| Abstract: | Understanding the direct and indirect health consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic is critical in designing a holistic public health response. This study has two objectives. First, we demonstrated the disruption of essential healthcare services using data from selected government facilities. Second, we estimated the productivity losses from direct and indirect health impacts of the pandemic. Validating our earlier study using health insurance claims, our findings showed a sharp decline in admissions and consultations in selected government facilities, particularly among the vulnerable population. Based on our estimates, the long-run costs from productivity losses from direct and indirect health impacts of the pandemic amount to PHP 2.3 trillion (at net present value). Indirect health impacts account for the majority of these costs. Click here to download the discussion paper. Comments to this paper are welcome within 60 days from the date of posting. Email publications@pids.gov.ph. |
| Keywords: | health;COVID-19; broad impact |
| Date: | 2021 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:phd:dpaper:dp_2021-23&r=sea |
| By: | Ali, Amjad; Audi, Marc; Al-Masri, Razan |
| Abstract: | This article has examined the role of environmental conditions and purchasing power parity in deciding the quality of life among big Asian cities. The study has constructed an index for quality of life with the help of housing, crime rates, death rate, average life expectancy, environmental degradation, and level of education. Quality of life has been selected as the dependent variable and the level of pollution, availability of health care facilities, local purchasing power, availability of groceries, level of democracy, cost of living, restaurants, level of traffic, and level of rents are selected explanatory variables. For empirical analysis, this study uses data for the years 2017, 2018, and 2019. The estimated results show that pollution has a negative and significant impact on the quality of life in the case of Asian cities. Local purchasing power has a positive and significant relationship with the quality of life in the cities of Asia. Groceries and democracy are very important parts of the daily life of human beings but they have insignificant impacts on the quality of life in Asian cities. Restaurants have a positive and significant impact on quality of life. This study finds that level of traffic and the level of rent have a negative and significant impact on the quality of life in the case of Asian cities. The overall results conclude that selected indicators play a significant role in determining the quality of life in Asian cities. |
| Keywords: | quality of life, environmental conditions, purchasing power parity |
| JEL: | E31 J17 R11 |
| Date: | 2022 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:115166&r=sea |
| By: | Ali, Amjad; Audi, Marc; Al-Masri, Razan |
| Abstract: | This article has examined the role of environmental conditions and purchasing power parity in deciding the quality of life among big Asian cities. The study has constructed an index for quality of life with the help of housing, crime rates, death rate, average life expectancy, environmental degradation, and level of education. Quality of life has been selected as the dependent variable and the level of pollution, availability of health care facilities, local purchasing power, availability of groceries, level of democracy, cost of living, restaurants, level of traffic, and level of rents are selected explanatory variables. For empirical analysis, this study uses data for the years 2017, 2018, and 2019. The estimated results show that pollution has a negative and significant impact on the quality of life in the case of Asian cities. Local purchasing power has a positive and significant relationship with the quality of life in the cities of Asia. Groceries and democracy are very important parts of the daily life of human beings but they have insignificant impacts on the quality of life in Asian cities. Restaurants have a positive and significant impact on quality of life. This study finds that level of traffic and the level of rent have a negative and significant impact on the quality of life in the case of Asian cities. The overall results conclude that selected indicators play a significant role in determining the quality of life in Asian cities. |
| Keywords: | quality of life, environmental conditions, purchasing power parity |
| JEL: | E31 J17 R11 |
| Date: | 2022 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:115030&r=sea |
| By: | Tamayo, Adrian; Lerios, Hamlet; Carpio, Napoleon; Sahidaini, Mohammad Hashim; Juevesano, Jesus |
| Abstract: | The study focused on the public safety strategy which combines internal security and community policing program in Davao Region called R-PSB or the Revitalized Pulis Sa Barangay. The study involved a total of 620 respondents who are implementers of the program. The findings revealed that there is an evident high degree of knowledge about the program and wide level of willingness to serve in the R-PSB program knowing that the program directly interacted with the community by providing basic infrastructures like roads, water system, livelihood and social services in the Geographically Isolated and Depressed Areas (GIDAs), and they affirm to be the symbol of governance in those areas. Using factor analysis, the dimension of the R-PSB implementation mechanism, pessimism on R-PSB, Information and Communication, perils of deployment, and capacity building. On the whole, the community policing cum internal security program of Philippine National Police Region 11 earned an overall assessment of 90.67%. The success factors of the R-PSB are willingness to volunteer (positive effect), R-PSB implementation mechanism (positive effect), Information and Education (positive effect), Perils of Deployment (positive effect), Conduct of Briefing (positive effect), Community Resilience (positive effect), Community Development (positive effect), Governance Credibility (positive effect), Making Sense of R-PSB (negative effect). Except with the Making Sense of R-PSB, all other variables contribute to the success of rating of the R-PSB. |
| Keywords: | Community Policing, Internal Security, Revitalized Pulis sa Barangay, Philippine National Police, Davao Region |
| JEL: | H00 O50 |
| Date: | 2022–11–01 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:115225&r=sea |
| By: | Muzdalifah, Alina |
| Abstract: | MS GLOW MS GLOW adalah sebuah brand kecantikan yang merupakan salah satu lini di bawah naungan PT. Kosmetika Cantik Indonesia. Berdiri pada tahun 2013, MS GLOW merupakan singkatan dari moto kami yaitu Magic For Skin. Berawal dari penjualan produk skincare dan body care secara online, MS GLOW telah memperoleh kepercayaan dari jutaan customer sehingga kami terus melakukan pengembangan produk. Tidak hanya sampai di situ, demi kepuasan dan kepercayaan customer kami juga mendirikan MS GLOW Aesthetic Clinic. Klinik kecantikan MS GLOW ini sudah ada 14 cabang di kota kota besar di Indonesia. Kami menghadirkan berbagai solusi perawatan wajah dan tubuh seperti Laser, Meso, skin rejuvenation, V shape, microdermabrasi, beauty transformation dan lainnya yang langsung ditangani dokter ahli. Hingga kini, MS GLOW sudah memiliki banyak macam produk skincare dengan inovasi yang selalu diperbaharui. Kami juga memformulasikan WhiteCellDNA sebagai salah satu bahan skincare yang dipatenkan oleh MS GLOW. Tak hanya berinovasi dalam formulasi produk, MS GLOW juga memberikan kemudahan untuk pelanggan dengan membangun sebuah aplikasi analisa kulit wajah yaitu MS GLOW Skin Analyzer. Dalam aplikasi ini pelanggan bisa mengetahun jenis dan kondisi kulit wajahnya, berkonsultasi dengan ahli kecantikan lewat video, hingga membeli produk. Kantor pusat MS GLOW sendiri berlokasi di di Jalan Komud Abdurrahman Saleh, Kel. Asrikaton, Kec. Pakis, Kab. Malang, Prop. Jawa Timur. |
| Date: | 2022–07–14 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:osf:thesis:2u7fh&r=sea |
| By: | Jochen Hartmann (University of Paderborn) |
| Abstract: | Hedge fund activists raise public demands around engagement announcements for a quarter of their engagements. I analyze the short- and long-term effects of public demands on the performance of target firms using an international dataset of 1,670 activist engagements across 35 countries between 2008 and 2019. For the global sample, I estimate significantly higher announcement returns for engagements with public demands than for those without public demands. At the regional level, differences in announcement returns between such engagements are significant only in North America, and not in Europe and the Asia-Pacific region. I find no evidence of a significant long-term outperformance of engagements with public demands in general and for engagements with successfully enforced public demands, compared to the remaining engagements for all regions. My findings indicate that activists have started to target firms with different characteristics than previously, which may help to explain the non-existent long-term outperformance of engagements with public demands. |
| Keywords: | Shareholder activism, international evidence, hedge funds, institutional investors |
| JEL: | G34 G23 G15 |
| Date: | 2022–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pdn:dispap:99&r=sea |
| By: | Andy Cao; Jason M. Lindo; Jiee Zhong |
| Abstract: | We investigate whether Donald Trump's "Chinese Virus" tweets contributed to the rise of anti-Asian incidents. We find that the number of incidents spiked following Trump’s initial “Chinese Virus” tweets and the subsequent dramatic rise in internet search activity for the phrase. Difference-in-differences and event-study analyses leveraging spatial variation indicate that this spike in anti-Asian incidents was significantly more pronounced in counties that supported Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election relative to those that supported Hillary Clinton. We estimate that anti-Asian incidents spiked by 4000 percent in Trump-supporting counties, over and above the spike observed in Clinton-supporting counties. |
| JEL: | H0 I18 J15 K0 |
| Date: | 2022–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:nbr:nberwo:30588&r=sea |
| By: | Paulo Rodelio Halili (Asian Development Bank); Rogelio V. Mercado, Jr. (South East Asian Central Banks (SEACEN) Research and Training Centre) |
| Abstract: | This paper examines the importance of trade ties, macro-financial volatilities, and US dollar trade invoicing in explaining Asia’s international investment assets and liabilities denominated in world currencies, including the US dollar (USD), euro (EUR), pound sterling (GBP), Japanese yen (JPY) and Chinese yuan (CNY). The results show heterogeneous patterns of relevant covariates across different currencies. More importantly, the estimates offer evidence that the region hedges its currency risk by investing in US dollar denominated assets as greater US dollar trade invoicing significantly covaries with greater debt asset holdings denominated in US dollar. |
| Keywords: | currency composition, international investment assets and liabilities, trade invoicing, bilateral trade, macro-financial volatilities |
| JEL: | F31 F36 F41 |
| Date: | 2022–11 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:sea:wpaper:wp49&r=sea |
| By: | Milanovic, Branko |
| Abstract: | The paper reestimates global inequality between 1820 and 1980, reappraises the results up to 2013, and presents new inequality estimates for 2018. It shows that historically, global inequality has followed three eras: the first, from 1820 until 1950, characterized by rising between country income differences and increasing within-country inequalities; the second, from 1950 to the last decade of the 20th century, with very high global and between-country inequality; and the current one of decreasing inequality thanks to the rise of Asian incomes, and especially so Chinese. The present era has seen the emergence of the global “median” class, reduced population-weighted gaps between nations, and the greatest reshuffling in income positions between the West and China since the Industrial Revolution. Whether global inequality will continue on its downward trend depends now much more on changes in India and large African countries than on China. (Stone Center on Socio-Economic Inequality Working Paper) |
| Date: | 2022–11–09 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:osf:socarx:yg2h9&r=sea |
| By: | Agni Rajinikanth |
| Abstract: | The 2022 Russia Ukraine War has led to many sanctions being placed on Russia and Ukraine. The paper will discuss the impact the 2022 Russian Sanctions have on agricultural food prices and hunger. The paper also uses Instrumental Variable Analysis to find how Cryptocurrency and Bitcoin can be used to hedge against the impact of sanctions. The 6 different countries analyzed in this study including Bangladesh, El Salvador, Iran, Nigeria, Philippines, and South Africa, all of which are heavy importers of wheat and corn. The paper shows that although Bitcoin may be volatile compared to other local currencies, it might be a good investment to safeguard assets since it is not correlated with commodity prices.Furthermore, the study demonstrates that transaction volume has a strong relationship with prices. |
| Date: | 2022–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:arx:papers:2210.10087&r=sea |
| By: | Siska, Noor Lia |
| Abstract: | Perkembangan ilmu Pengetahuan dan teknologi berkembang dengan sangat pesat, tidak dapat dipungkiri lagi bahwa hal ini akan berdampak pada lahirnya arus globalisasi yang mengakibatkan terjadinya pergeseran dalam struktur masyarakat. Derasnya arus globalisasi ini membawa berbagai pengaruh yang berdampak pada hal positif dan negative diantaranya yaitu terkikisnya rasa kecintaan dan rasa kebanggaan sebagai bangsa Indonesia. Apabila hal ini dibiarkan maka yang terjadi adalah mengikisnya rasa cinta dan bangga terhadap bangsa sendiri dikalangan masyarakat dan generasi muda yang ada. Perkenalan sejarah local sebagai usaha untuk memperkenalkan kearifan lokal yang ada pada setiap daerah yang ada di nusantara dengan berbagai budaya yang berbeda serta untuk menanamkan peninggalan sejarah dengan nilai-nilai luhur pada generasi muda. Pembelajaran sejarah sangat penting dalam pembangunan bangsa. Pendidika sejarah juga berperan penting dalam internalisasi dan pembangunan kesadaran sejarah. sejarah lokal merupakan bentuk dari jati diri atau identitas kehidupan seseorang. Sejarah lokal sangat penting bagi kehidupan masyarakat terutaam masyarakat modern yang hidup ditengah maraknya perkemnbangan teknologi yang berperan sebagai sumber kreativitas dan pandangan optimis masyarakat lokal. Dengan pengertian bahwa masyarakat tradisional mungkin hanya berbuat sesuai dengan tantangan seketika yang mereka temukan, tetapi masyarakat modern tidak bisa terpaku pada kekinian. Sejarah lokal memberikan pelajaran untuk menghadapi |
| Date: | 2022–06–09 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:osf:thesis:gpd6w&r=sea |