|
on Public Economics |
| By: | Bohne, Albrecht; Nimczik, Jan Sebastian |
| Abstract: | We evaluate a tax reform in Ecuador that introduced generous deductions from personal income taxes (PIT), encouraging consumers to request receipts. The reform addresses tax evasion by targeting small self-employed businesses that mainly sell goods or services not subject to VAT but often evade income taxes. Exploiting plausibly exogenous variation in receipt demand due to the distribution of taxpayers across regions and professions, we find significant increases in reported profits among self-employed businesses exposed to the reform. We document spillover effects on the VAT system. Our net-revenue impact analysis suggests that the additional tax payments outweigh the foregone tax revenue. |
| Keywords: | Formalization, Tax Avoidance, VAT, Personal Income Tax |
| JEL: | O17 H26 H24 H25 |
| Date: | 2025 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:zewdip:333929 |
| By: | Tassi, Annalisa; Bussy, Adrien |
| Abstract: | We investigate whether firms engage in VAT evasion at the retail stage-typically a point of weakness in VAT systems-in a high-enforcement, low-informality setting. To measure evasion, we exploit a reform of VAT rules (the reverse charge, RC) whereby retailers do not only remit taxes on their own value-added, but on that created along the entire supply chain, increasing their incentive to evade. Using German administrative firm-level VAT return data and an instrumental variable approach based on RC's staggered introduction, we find no evidence of greater evasion under RC. Our results suggest that evasion at the retail stage might not be quantitatively important in high-enforcement and low-informality settings, implying little need to enlist consumers in tax enforcement to boost tax compliance. |
| Keywords: | Value Added Tax, VAT, Reverse Charge Mechanism, Tax Evasion, Withholding, Last-Mile Problem |
| JEL: | H21 H26 D22 |
| Date: | 2025 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:zewdip:333931 |
| By: | Laurent Bach (ESSEC Business School); Antoine Bozio (Paris School of Economics (PSE), EHESS, IPP); Arthur Guillouzouic (Aix-Marseille Univ., CNRS, AMSE, Marseille, France); Clément Malgouyres (CREST–CNRS and IPP–PSE) |
| Abstract: | We link French households’ tax records to the corporations they control, and build a payout-policy–neutral income measure, with corresponding tax burdens including those of "billionaires": the top 0.0002%. De- fined as such, income is more concentrated than taxable income, it better predicts rich-list membership, and persists more among billionaires. Personal taxes remain progressive until the top 0.1%, but eventually decline to 2% of income. Corporate taxes are an imperfect progressive backstop, as total tax rates fall from 45% at the 0.1% threshold to 25% for billionaires. Among these, the tax burden is global and tax-efficient pyramidal control over businesses ubiquitous. |
| Keywords: | income distribution, Tax progressivity, Business Income, Corporate tax |
| JEL: | E62 H25 |
| Date: | 2025–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:aim:wpaimx:2532 |
| By: | Kaplan, Scott; White, Justin S. |
| Abstract: | This paper studies how excise taxes affect outcomes related to both taxed characteristics of a product and associated, untaxed characteristics. The empirical analysis examines volumetric excise taxes on sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs); while the tax is levied on volume, a primary objective of these taxes is to reduce sugar intake. Using national high-frequency retail scanner data and a staggered adoption synthetic difference-in-differences approach, we study the impacts of volumetric taxes across the US on prices and purchases of volume and sugar from SSBs. First, due to a linear tax and non-linear pricing in volume, we find volumetric taxes disproportionately increase the price of larger-volume products, increasing the average price per ounce by 4.4% for products in the smallest product size quartile and 24.6% in the largest quartile. Second, we show a specific excise tax generates an equivalent tax rate on taxed and untaxed characteristics within a product. Finally, volumetric taxes in the US led to (i) larger overall reductions in volume (-36.2%) compared to grams of sugar (-31.0%) purchased from SSBs, and (ii) smaller increases in the average price per ounce (26.5%) compared to the average price per gram of sugar (40.7%). We find the gap in relative reductions in volume versus sugar is plausibly driven by consumer substitution to products with higher sugar concentrations. The findings have important implications for specific excise tax structures, which should consider heterogeneity across products in both taxed and untaxed characteristics of interest. |
| Keywords: | Health Economics and Policy |
| Date: | 2025 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ags:aaea25:360923 |
| By: | Olivera, Javier; Schokkaert, Erik; van Kerm, Philippe |
| Abstract: | This paper uses a survey experiment embedded in the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement (SHARE) for Luxembourg – a representative sample of the population aged 50 and above in the country – to show how provision of information influences elicited support for inheritance taxation. While support is low in generic, direct questions about inheritance taxation, support increases when respondents are asked to express views about linear tax rates with explicit tax exemption thresholds and when information is provided about how tax revenues will be used – especially if respondents are told revenues will be used to improve the quality of basic education. This information effect plays even in our setting in which the focus is on inheritances from parents to children. It is only relevant however for respondents who were initially opposed to the tax and does not affect strongly the proponents. |
| Keywords: | inheritance taxation; vignettes; survey experiment; Luxembourg; SHARE |
| JEL: | H24 D31 D63 E62 H53 |
| Date: | 2024–12–04 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ehl:lserod:130698 |
| By: | Sara Drango; Sarah Moshary; Bradley Shapiro |
| Abstract: | We evaluate the effect of California's 11 percent excise tax on firearms, introduced in July 2024, on retail prices. Using price quotes for 48 popular firearms from over 2, 200 licensed dealers, we compare California prices to those in other states and to pre-tax trends. We find that prices in California increase by about 10% in response to the 11% tax. Results are consistent across gun types and show no evidence of border spillovers. These findings indicate that firearm excise taxes can effectively raise consumer prices. |
| JEL: | H21 H22 H23 I18 K34 L11 L68 |
| Date: | 2025–12 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:nbr:nberwo:34527 |
| By: | Nicolas Ajzenman (McGill University); Martín Ardanaz (Inter-American Development Bank); Guillermo Cruces (Universidad de San Andrés-CONICET, University of Nottingham); Germán Feierherd (Universidad de San Andrés); Ignacio Lunghi (New York University & CEDLAS-IIE-UNLP) |
| Abstract: | Corruption—and the widespread perception of it—poses significant obstacles to development by eroding institutional trust and reducing citizens’ willingness to pay taxes. Yet, government efforts to improve public perceptions by combating corruption may prove ineffective—or even backfire—when confronted with entrenched pessimistic beliefs. We propose that providing an external benchmark of corruption to shift the reference point before highlighting government actions can mitigate these negative effects. In a survey experiment exploiting an institutional reform within Honduras’ tax agency, we find that messages focusing solely on reform efforts have limited or negative effects. By contrast, a combined message that first corrects pessimistic beliefs and then highlights anti-corruption efforts significantly reduces perceived corruption and tax evasion intentions. A field experiment with approximately 45, 000 taxpayers confirms that this sequencing approach increases actual tax compliance. These findings suggest that belief updating is possible—but only when information is structured to first engage and recalibrate skeptical priors. |
| Keywords: | Corruption, Tax Administration, Tax Evasion, Field Experiment |
| Date: | 2025–11 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:sad:wpaper:173 |
| By: | Dhaval M. Dave; Tessie Krishna; Yang Liang; Joseph J. Sabia |
| Abstract: | The rise in nicotine vaping among U.S. teenagers in the late 2010s prompted tobacco control advocates to press for higher electronic nicotine delivery system (ENDS) taxes to curb their use. This study is the first to explore how the effectiveness of e-cigarette taxation as an anti-vaping policy tool has evolved over time. Using data from several nationally representative data sources and a generalized difference-in-differences approach, we find that since 2020, the effectiveness of a one dollar increase in ENDS taxes in curbing youth nicotine vaping has declined by over 50 percent. This finding is consistent with the marginal youth vaper becoming more tax inelastic over time. Descriptive evidence shows that the composition of youth ENDS users appears to have shifted toward those with a higher addictive stock and a greater taste for risk, which could make youths less tax responsive. For adults, where nicotine vaping rates are stable or slightly rising and compositional shifts are somewhat less pronounced, we find much less evidence that ENDS tax effectiveness has changed over time. |
| JEL: | H71 I12 I18 |
| Date: | 2025–12 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:nbr:nberwo:34544 |
| By: | Bohne, Albrecht; Hines, James R.; Koumpias, Antonios M.; Tassi, Annalisa |
| Abstract: | The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the effect of reverse-charge mechanism (RCM) implementation on VAT compliance using an overall, countrylevel measure of VAT compliance, the VAT gap. The VAT gap is defined as the overall difference between expected and realized VAT revenues and is a broader measure than outcomes employed in previous research, incorporating all types of VAT evasion. Exploiting the staggered adoption of RCM across Europe and the size of industries targeted by RCM, we compare changes in the VAT gap before and after RCM implementation. Evidence from difference-in-differences, event study, and heterogeneous treatment effects estimators indicates that the adoption of the RCM does not lead to significant EU-wide changes on the aggregate VAT gap. Moreover, our results illustrate the mixed impacts of RCM on different goods and industries, with measurable decreases in VAT losses in the construction and industrial crops industries. This study's findings do not provide strong support for policy changes that cast the net of the RCM wider on all industries and EU member states, although bilateral coordination in RCM adoption with top trading partners may assist in curbing VAT fraud relocation. |
| Keywords: | Tax evasion, VAT, VAT gap, reverse-charge mechanism, carousel fraud |
| JEL: | H26 K42 |
| Date: | 2025 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:zewdip:333928 |
| By: | Youngsoo Jang (University of Queensland); Svetlana Pashchenko (University of Georgia); Ponpoje Porapakkarm (National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies) |
| Abstract: | What is the best way to reform Social Security? Academic literature offers diverging advice. There is a well-known result that the optimal size of Social Security is zero, implying it is best to phase the program out. Other studies argue that much can be gained by redesigning the program, given its current size. We provide a unified analysis that examines how the optimal size of Social Security depends on the key features of its design. We first develop a theoretical decomposition tracing the program's welfare effects to (i) income redistribution, (ii) distortions on the annuitization level, and (iii) intertemporal distortions. We then quantitatively assess the role of these channels. We show that the zero-optimal-size result arises because Social Security is too distortive and not redistributive enough. Once these design flaws are corrected, it is even optimal to increase the size of the program. |
| Keywords: | pensions, annuities, consumption and saving, life-cycle model |
| JEL: | D15 E60 H55 |
| Date: | 2026–01 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hka:wpaper:2025-012 |
| By: | Giulia Klinges; Alain Jousten; Mathieu Lefebvre |
| Abstract: | Over the years, the Belgian social security system has undergone substantial reform with a prime focus on increasing older worker labor force participation. The paper explores the effect of past reforms on inequality in old age. We distinguish two separate effects: The mechanical effect considers the change in inequality and expected benefit levels due to the reforms for a fixed retirement age distribution. The behavioral effect accounts for the endogenous change caused by changes in the incentives to work. Our results show that mechanically, reforms have led to losses in expected benefits for all but the lowest income quintile. Behavioral changes had a positive but orders of magnitude smaller effect. Overall, inequality decreased as a result of reforms. |
| JEL: | D63 H55 I38 J26 |
| Date: | 2025–12 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:nbr:nberwo:34579 |
| By: | Tharp, Derek (University of Southern Maine) |
| Abstract: | Nearly one-fourth of Americans claim Social Security at age 62, while only one-in-ten wait until age 70—a pattern that has long puzzled economists who argue delay is financially optimal. This paper develops a series of dynamic programming models to examine whether early claiming reflects mistakes or rational responses to preferences overlooked in standard analyses. Three behavioral factors are incorporated: a claim-retire linkage (a preference to claim benefits at retirement rather than managing a separate "bridge" period); front-loaded consumption preferences (a desire to spend more in the early, active years of retirement); and source-dependent utility (greater comfort spending from regular income like Social Security than drawing down a retirement portfolio). Using Epstein–Zin recursive utility with stochastic investment returns, medical expenditure shocks, mortality risk, policy risk, and bequest motives, results show that incorporating these empirically documented factors substantially lowers optimal claiming ages. Under the full behavioral specification, claiming at 62 is optimal for households with up to $800, 000 in initial wealth—a wealth level that encompasses the vast majority of Americans approaching retirement. Results are qualitatively robust to alternative assumptions about mortality, bequest strength, tax treatment, and spousal or survivor benefits. These findings suggest that widespread early claiming may reflect genuine preferences rather than financial mistakes, though individual circumstances—including wealth, employment status, tax situation, and personal preferences—may provide incentives toward delay. Rather than uniformly prescribing delay, advisors should assess clients' goals, circumstances, and preferences and tailor recommendations accordingly. |
| Date: | 2025–12–19 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:osf:socarx:wx6jn_v1 |
| By: | Salah, Amel |
| Abstract: | This paper aims to explore the relationship between corporate social responsibility and tax avoidance among publicly listed banks, based on their annual reports and websites within a developing market, specifically Tunisia. The necessary data were collected from the annual reports of a sample of nine Tunisian banks listed on the Tunis Stock Exchange (BVMT) for the period from 2012 to 2018. According to the estimated results, it can be concluded that the less involved banks are in economic and environmental activities, the more likely they are to engage in fraudulent tax-related behaviors. The findings indicate that a bank’s tax avoidance is influenced by the nature of its social responsibility activities. In particular, banks that participate in social initiatives are less prone to evade taxes. |
| Keywords: | corporate social responsibility, tax avoidance, BVMT. |
| JEL: | G3 H26 |
| Date: | 2025–12 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:127478 |
| By: | Bhandari, Nabin; Miao, Ruiqing |
| Abstract: | A key feature of circular economy is the economic connection between virgin firms and recycling firms. We develop a conceptual framework to study the impact of taxing virgin plastic consumers with money back policy (TCMB) and, separately, taxing virgin plastic producers (TP) on total social welfare in the U.S. plastic market under two scenarios (virgin and recycling plastic firms economically connected (scenario I) vs independent (scenario II)). We find that taxing consumers with money back (TCMB) policy is superior to taxing producers (TP) to reduce the landfill quantity in both scenarios. For example, under 10% tax (in both TCMB and TP) policy and the assumption of 10% of the used virgin plastic returned to collection centers and 30% of tax amount being returned to consumers in TCMB policy, we find that the landfill quantity is 64% and 62% of virgin plastic produced in scenario I and scenario II, respectively under TCMB policy. However, in TP policy, the landfill quantity is 74% (scenario I) and 74.6% (scenario II) of produced virgin plastic. Accounting the environmental damage cost associated with production of virgin plastic, taxing either consumer or producer increases the total social welfare (TSW) in the U.S. plastic market compared to the no policy scenario. Under scenario II, TCMB and TP generate 23% and 15.67%, respectively, additional total social welfare in the plastic market compared to the benchmark scenario. |
| Keywords: | Environmental Economics and Policy |
| Date: | 2025 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ags:aaea25:360722 |
| By: | Jeanne Bomare (Centre for the Analysis of Taxation, London School of Economics); Ségal Le Guern Herry (Aix-Marseille Univ., CNRS, AMSE, Marseille, France) |
| Abstract: | The 2014 Automatic Exchange of Information (AEoI) represents the most comprehensive global effort to combat tax evasion by enabling cross-border information exchange on financial assets. We examine how this policy shifted offshore investment behavior. While the AEoI mandates reporting of financial assets, it excludes real estate holdings. Using administrative data on UK real estate purchases by foreign companies, we show that offshore users substituted financial assets for real estate in response to the new transparency regime. Our findings suggest that real estate assets now account for a growing share of offshore portfolios, partly due to their exclusion from the AEoI. |
| Keywords: | Tax Enforcement, real estate, Hidden Wealth |
| JEL: | D31 R30 H26 |
| Date: | 2025–06 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:aim:wpaimx:2523 |
| By: | Gwen-Jiro Clochard; Shubham Dey; Shusaku Sasaki; Taisuke Imai |
| Abstract: | This paper presents the first quantitative meta-analysis of the price elasticity of charitable giving under both rebate and matching schemes. We compile 151 elasticity estimates from 33 experimental studies and synthesize them using random-effects and multi-level models. Charitable giving is highly price-responsive: the pooled meta-analytic mean elasticity of total donations is −1.25, indicating that lowering the effective price of giving substantially increases charitable revenue. Althoughwe observe considerable between-study heterogeneity and some evidence of publication bias, bias-adjusted estimates remain negative. Furthermore, elasticity is substantially more negative under matching (−1.98) than under rebate (−0.87), contradicting the theoretical prediction of equivalence but aligning with the original experimental findings in this literature. The rebate-matching difference is attenuated when moving from laboratory to field settings, although it persists. |
| Date: | 2025–12 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:dpr:wpaper:1299 |
| By: | Cristina Bellés-Obrero; Manuel Flores Mallo; Pilar García-Gómez; Sergi Jimenez-Martin; Judit Vall Castelló |
| Abstract: | This chapter studies social security reforms and trends in inequalities among older workers over the last decades in Spain. Its main goal is to analyze the redistributive impact of the various pension reforms on older income inequality. Compared to the rules in 1985, recent pension reforms have led to an average increase on Social Security Wealth of approximately 18, 000€ for men and 15, 000€ for women. This represents a ten and eight percent increase, respectively. This effect is mostly driven by the mechanical or direct effect (e.g. via benefit adjustments), while changes in retirement probability (secondary or behavioral effect) are close to zero. Furthermore, we find striking differences across income quartiles, for both men and women. In both cases, there is a clear income gradient, where the richest quartile has benefitted the most with an increase close to twenty percent, or over €50, 000, for both men and women. Conversely, the change for the poorest income quartile for men and the two poorest income quartiles for women is close to zero or even slightly negative. This is likely due to the effect of minimum benefits (that mark the generosity of the system, see Boldrin et al, 1999) that automatically absorb any other effect for low-income individuals. |
| JEL: | D31 H55 |
| Date: | 2025–12 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:nbr:nberwo:34577 |
| By: | Olteanu, Dan Constantin (Romanian Academy, National Institute of Economic Research) |
| Abstract: | In this paper we verify and quantify the convergence trend of public social expenditure at European Union level (27 countries), as well as between Western European (WE) and Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries between 1995 and 2022, structured on the three social sectors (health care, education and social protection), and three destinations (public consumption, compensation of employees and social benefits). At the same time, we investigate the manner and extent to which the effects of the Covid-19 crisis in 2020-2022 have affected this convergence trend. |
| Keywords: | social convergence, public social expenditure, health, education, social protection, public consumption, public wages, social benefits |
| JEL: | H51 H52 H53 I18 I28 I38 |
| Date: | 2025–06 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ror:wpince:250630 |
| By: | Rolf Aaberge; Jørgen Modalsli; Edda Solbakken (Statistics Norway) |
| Abstract: | This paper introduces a framework for estimating long-run series of measures of overall inequality and top wealth shares when data consist of a combination of historical tabulations and modern administrative registers of taxable wealth. The proposed framework is applicable when historical wealth tabulations as a minimum provide information on bracket boundaries and the proportion of tax units for each of the wealth brackets. The framework has been used to produce evidence on wealth inequality in Norway from 1912 to 2019. The empirical results show that wealth inequality as measured by the Gini coefficient was very high at the beginning of the twentieth century, fell during the post-war period and has increased substantially since the 1980s. The rise in wealth inequality over the recent four decades is driven by a rise in the wealth share of the top 1 per cent, while equalization among the bottom 99 per cent accounted for 70 percent of the reduction in wealth inequality from the early 1950s to the late 1960s. |
| Keywords: | Distribution of wealth; long-run inequality; the Gini coefficient; wealth taxation; Norway |
| JEL: | D31 D63 H29 N34 |
| Date: | 2025–10 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ssb:dispap:1028 |
| By: | Takashi Oshio; Satoshi Shimizutani; Akiko S. Oishi |
| Abstract: | We examined the heterogeneous impacts of social security reforms in Japan over the past 40 years. We utilize a nationwide large-scale micro-dataset to compute individual-level social security wealth (SSW) and mortality rates by lifetime earning groups. We found that SSW declined for all groups after the social security reforms, which aimed to reduce generosity; however, the size of the negative impact was larger for richer individuals. These results indicate that a series of recent social security reforms have reduced inequality in SSW. |
| JEL: | H30 I31 J14 |
| Date: | 2025–12 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:nbr:nberwo:34574 |
| By: | Leander Heldring |
| Abstract: | I examine the potential of pro-development state (capacity) building projects to be coopted for repression. I leverage the natural experiment created by the differential build-up of capacity between formerly Prussian and formerly non-Prussian parts of unified Germany, and the radical policy shifts instigated by the Nazi regime. Across a geographical discontinuity, and across different stops of the same train transport to the East, I find that Prussian municipalities were significantly more efficient at deporting Germany's Jews. They were also better at providing public goods and at collecting taxes. Just before the Nazis came to power, Prussian municipalities also provided public goods more efficiently, but were not differentially involved with anti-Semitism. I show that democratic oversight and aspects of bureaucratic culture can mitigate the potential for future abuse of state building projects. |
| JEL: | H11 H41 N43 N44 P50 |
| Date: | 2025–12 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:nbr:nberwo:34586 |
| By: | Tadhg Ryan-Charleton (Motu Economic and Public Policy Research); Conor O’Kane (University of Otago); Dean Hyslop (Motu Economic and Public Policy Research); David C. Maré (Motu Economic and Public Policy Research); Amelia Blamey (Motu Economic and Public Policy Research) |
| Abstract: | The Research and Development Tax Incentive (RDTI) was introduced on 1 April 2019 to encourage business innovation, by offering a 15% tax credit on eligible research and development (R&D) expenditure. It replaced the R&D Growth Grants scheme, which closed to new applicants in 2019 and was phased out in 2021. The legislation introducing the RDTI specifies that an objective and independent evaluation of the scheme must be laid before the House of Representatives every five years. Motu Research was engaged by MBIE to lead the first five-year evaluation. Motu Research worked with the University of Otago, who contributed qualitative and subject-specific expertise to the evaluation. Our team was asked to address five questions focusing on the impact of the RDTI (and of other types of government R&D support to businesses), as well as the RDTI’s compliance costs, administrative processes and legal requirements. We were also asked to consider a sixth question — how certain conclusions from our evaluation would be affected by changes to three specific policy settings. We addressed these questions using a mixed methods approach, combining quantitative analysis of survey and administrative data with qualitative insights from interviews with key stakeholders. The quantitative approach relied primarily on statistical analysis of data from Statistics New Zealand’s Longitudinal Business Database, with our descriptive analysis also drawing on other administrative data sources. The qualitative analysis used data from 67 semi-structured interviews we conducted with 84 participants. This includes 41 interviews with firms, 10 with RDTI operational team members, 5 with policy experts and 11 with professional tax advisors. Our quantitative analysis found firms supported by the RDTI spent more on R&D than they would have in the absence of RDTI support. The difference was stronger for smaller firms. Annual R&D expenditure was on average $274, 000 higher per firm because of RDTI support. The total additional R&D expenditure generated by the RDTI was $1.83 billion. For every $1 of government spend, firms invested $1.40 in additional R&D, which is similar to OECD benchmarks. The additional R&D stimulated by the RDTI was estimated to generate an impact on New Zealand’s GDP of $6.77 billion (mid-point of a range estimate), which suggests an overall economic impact of 4.2 times government investment. Our qualitative analysis suggested significant RDTI compliance costs were more than offset by the ability to access greater levels of R&D support. Most firms indicated the RDTI had a positive impact on their R&D activities and business outcomes. Several firms with international operations explained the RDTI is influential in attracting and retaining R&D work in Aotearoa New Zealand. There was also a strong indication that businesses prefer policy stability, with the implication that instability leads to lower R&D expenditure and lower uptake. |
| Keywords: | Public funding for business R&D, business innovation, technology and innovation policy, RDTI, New Zealand |
| JEL: | O38 O31 D22 |
| Date: | 2025–12–19 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:mtu:wpaper:25_11 |