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on Economics of Human Migration |
| By: | William W. Olney (Williams College); Owen Thompson (Williams College); ; |
| Abstract: | "Internal migration in the United States has declined substantially over the past several decades, which has important implications for individual welfare and macroeconomic adjustment. This paper studies the determinants of internal migration and how they have changed over time. We use administrative data from the IRS covering the universe of bilateral moves between every Commuting Zone (CZ) in the country over a 23 year period. This data is linked to information on local wage levels and home prices, and we estimate bilateral migration determinants in rich regression specifications that contain CZ-pair fixed effects. Consistent with theoretical predictions, we find that migration is decreasing with origin wages and destination home prices, and is increasing with destination wages and origin home prices. We then examine the contributions of earnings and home prices to the noted overall decline in internal migration. These analyses show that wages on their own would have led to an increase in migration rates, primarily because migrants are increasingly responsive to high earnings levels in potential destination CZs. However, these wage effects have been more than offset by housing related factors, which have increasingly impeded internal mobility. In particular, migration has become much less responsive to housing prices in the origin CZ, such that many households that would have left in response to high home prices several decades ago now choose to stay. " |
| Keywords: | Internal Migration, Wages, Housing Prices, Mobility |
| JEL: | R23 J31 |
| Date: | 2025–08–27 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:wil:wileco:2025_116 |
| By: | Kota Yamada (Tokoha University); Masaya Yasuoka (Kwansei Gakuin University) |
| Abstract: | This paper analyzes the effects of immigration on host countries' labor markets and capital accumulation using a dynamic general equilibrium model with two host countries and one sending country. Higher productivity or greater capital accumulation in a country raises wages and attracts more immigrants, whereas an increase in the labor force lowers wages and suppresses inflows. These results have been demonstrated in the existing literature. When we consider capital mobility between two countries that both accept immigrants, how is the number of immigrants admitted by each country determined? If we consider not only labor mobility but also capital mobility, the inflow of immigrants raises the marginal product of capital, thereby promoting capital inflows. In turn, capital inflows increase the marginal product of labor, which further encourages additional immigration. The findings provide useful policy implications for OECD countries facing declining fertility, population aging, and concerns over future labor shortages. |
| Keywords: | Capital Mobility, Immigration, Multi Immigration-Receiving Countries |
| JEL: | J15 E24 |
| Date: | 2026–03 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:kgu:wpaper:307 |
| By: | Jurado, Ignacio; Serrano-Serrat, Josep |
| Abstract: | This paper examines how social group boundaries are renegotiated in response to demographic change, focusing on immigration from culturally diverse backgrounds. Using a survey experiment in Spain, we explore how Latin American immigrants—who share linguistic and cultural affinities with natives—react to the perceived growth of Moroccans, a more culturally distant immigrant group. Drawing on social identity and political economy theories, we argue that exposure to Moroccan immigration prompts Latinos to align more closely with natives, reflecting a dynamic of strategic boundary-making. Results show that Latinos perceive themselves as closer to Spaniards and more socially recognized, accompanied by a shift toward defining \textit{“being Spanish”} in cultural rather than birth terms. We find no corresponding change among natives, who, if anything, perceive Latinos as less similar to them. These findings suggest that boundary-making is a fluid and strategic process that is influenced by relative cultural distance to other immigrant groups. |
| Date: | 2026–03–18 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:osf:socarx:mwqhr_v1 |
| By: | Ceballos, Francisco; Hernandez, Manuel A. |
| Abstract: | The external and internal Migration Propensity Indices (e-MPI and i-MPI) are tools to objectively estimate the probability that individuals from a given household will, respectively, migrate abroad or migrate domestically in the near future. We use new longitudinal data to test their predictive performance fully out of sample. We find that households classified as being of high-propensity to migrate by the e-MPI were significantly more likely to migrate abroad within 24 months (10.7%) than medium- and low-propensity groups (8.8% and 5.3%). For domestic migration, the i-MPI shows an even stronger gradient (19.6% versus 8.5% and 3.5%, respectively). Regression models confirm that both indices outperform alternative predictors—including income, climate shocks, crime, and migration intent—and maintain predictive power across rural and urban areas. Placebo tests indicate that the e-MPI and i-MPI capture distinct dimensions of migration behavior, validating their use for targeting and monitoring migration-related interventions. Overall, the MPIs emerge as simple yet statistically robust tools that reliably predict both international and domestic migration, offering a practical and scalable solution to help governments and development agencies anticipate migration trends and allocate resources strategically. |
| Keywords: | migration; indicators; forecasting; population dynamics; Honduras; Central America |
| Date: | 2025–12–17 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:ifprwp:178954 |
| By: | Nikos Benos (University of Ioannina); Stelios Karagiannis (European Training Foundation); Anastasia Litina (University of Macedonia); Sofia Tsitou (University of Macedonia) |
| Abstract: | This paper investigates the long-term impact of the 1920s forced displacement of Asia Minor refugees on contemporary health behaviors in Greece. Using regionally representative data from the 2019 Greek Health Survey and historical refugee settlement patterns, we find that individuals living in areas with higher historical shares of refugees are significantly more likely to engage in preventive health care, consult medical professionals, participate in physical activity, and maintain healthy dietary habits. These effects persist after controlling for socioeconomic, demographic, and geographic factors, and are robust to various specifications, including the exclusion of Attica, the main internal migration hub, and age-stratified analyses. To explain these findings, we discuss four plausible mechanisms: the relatively higher human capital and educational attainment of the refugee population, their early exposure to adverse health conditions, large-scale public infrastructure investments prompted by the resettlement effort, and the cultural diffusion of health-conscious norms and practices. Together, our results suggest that historical episodes of forced migration can have durable effects on public health behavior through intergenerational transmission of norms and institutional legacies, with implications for both migration policy and health inequality. |
| Keywords: | Forced migration, Refugees, Health behavior, Preventive care, Cultural persistence, Historical legacies, Human capital, Public health infrastructure, Intergenerational transmission, Greece, Asia Minor refugees |
| JEL: | C24 I20 I12 N34 N44 N64 N74 |
| Date: | 2026–07 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:mcd:mcddps:2026_07 |
| By: | Cristian Bonavida (Carnegie Mellon & CEDLAS-IIE-FCE-UNLP) |
| Abstract: | This paper examines whether marriage serves as a strategic response to immigration policy uncertainty. We study transitions into marriage among cohabiting binational couples—defined as unions between a U.S. citizen and a noncitizen partner—following the shift in immigration policy expectations during the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign and the subsequent tightening of enforcement in 2017. Using ACS data from 2008 to 2019 and a difference-in-differences design, we compare marriage transitions among binational couples to those of homogeneous citizen couples. Immigration policy uncertainty increased marriage rates among binational couples by approximately 1.5–1.8 percentage points, or about 8-10 percent relative to pre-treatment levels. Event-study estimates show no differential pre-trends and indicate that the response began in 2016, prior to the formal reinstatement of Secure Communities. The effect is concentrated among likely unauthorized immigrants and individuals from targeted nationalities. The findings suggest that marriage functioned as a form of legal and economic insurance in response to heightened deportation risk. |
| JEL: | J12 J15 J61 |
| Date: | 2026–03 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:dls:wpaper:0369 |
| By: | van Asselt, Joanna; Synt, Nang Lun Kham; McCord, Dedrick |
| Abstract: | Drawing on data from seven rounds of the Myanmar Household Welfare Survey (MHWS), conducted between December 2021 and June 2024 with over 12, 000 respondents per round, this report examines individual migration, migration in which one or a few household members leave the household. Over the two-and-a-half-year period from December 2021 to June 2024, an estimated 9 million household members aged 15 and older—17 percent of the total population and 28 percent of the adult population—migrated from their households. During this time, the states of Kachin, Kayin, and Mon reported the highest migration rates, with over 35 percent of the adult population migrating. In January through June 2024, nearly nine percent of households reported sending migrants. However, the proportion of individuals migrating within Myanmar for work declined, while more individuals migrated for reasons such as marriage, education, or safety. Additionally, it is estimated that six percent of households had members migrate abroad to evade conscription laws. Urban households and those in Yangon were particularly likely to send members abroad to avoid conscription. |
| Keywords: | migration; social change; emigration; instability; youth; safety; household surveys; employment; data; Myanmar; Asia; South-eastern Asia |
| Date: | 2025–07–24 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:ifprwp:175805 |
| By: | Federico Mandelman; Yang Yu; Francesco Zanetti |
| Abstract: | Immigration has become a central driver of U.S. labor force growth. We document new empirical findings that shed light on the relationships between immigration, labor shortages, wage growth, and job openings during the high-immigration period of 2021-2024. The textbook search-and-matching model implies highly counterfactual labor market dynamics: it predicts that a surge in immigration lowers hiring costs and stimulates vacancy posting, leaving labor market tightness and wages largely unchanged. This prediction contradicts the data, which shows a negative correlation between immigration and vacancy growth. To reconcile the evidence, we extend the framework to incorporate complementarities between native and immigrant workers together with a Leontief-type production technology that generates labor shortages similar to those observed in the post-pandemic period. In this environment, immigration alleviates these shortages by helping fill vacancies and dampening wage growth, consistent with the data. |
| Keywords: | immigration, labor shortages, search-and-matching models |
| JEL: | E24 E32 J63 J64 F22 |
| Date: | 2026–03 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:een:camaaa:2026-18 |
| By: | Nungsari, Melati (Asia School of Business); Varming, Kirstine Rahma Stroeh; Manohar, Shre Maha |
| Abstract: | Refugees living in contexts of protracted displacement face overlapping and recurring crises that extend beyond the initial experience of forced migration. This article examines how refugees in Malaysia navigate such crises while living under conditions of legal precarity, economic marginalization, and social exclusion. Drawing on longitudinal qualitative interviews with refugee community leaders conducted across four rounds between 2020 and 2022, the study identifies 32 distinct coping mechanisms employed in response to external shocks and everyday structural constraints. These mechanisms are grouped into five categories inspired by Lazarus and Folkman’s stress-coping framework: problem-focused, emotion-focused, meaning-focused, social-support-based, and maladaptive coping. The analysis shows that while many coping strategies provide temporary relief and demonstrate considerable agency within refugee communities, structural barriers significantly limit their long-term effectiveness. Legal exclusion, restricted access to formal employment, and social marginalization shape the range of coping strategies available and often prevent adaptive responses from translating into sustained improvements in wellbeing. To capture this dynamic, the article introduces the concept of a “survival loop, ” a cycle in which crises trigger coping responses that alleviate immediate pressures but ultimately reproduce vulnerability over time. By situating coping strategies within the broader structural conditions of protracted displacement, the study contributes to crisis and refugee studies by highlighting the limits of resilience-focused approaches and emphasizing the importance of structural interventions in shaping long-term wellbeing. |
| Date: | 2026–03–11 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:osf:socarx:n4ut6_v1 |
| By: | Meier, Amrei |
| Abstract: | Digital and artificial intelligence (AI)-based systems now shape all phases of international migration - from the pre-screening of applications and profiles to border management and the integration of migrants. States, international organisations, and private providers use digital platforms, biometric systems, and algorithmic processes to manage migration in a more targeted way. At the same time, migrants themselves use digital tools to obtain information, prepare decisions, and secure access to work or support. This development is changing migration not only operationally but also structurally: It enables new forms of digital labour mobility, shifts power relations and dependencies, and embeds migration into a global data economy. For Germany and the European Union (EU), the question arises as to how digitalisation and AI can be shaped in terms of migration, foreign, and development policy so as to deliver efficiency gains in administration and procedures, without undermining data protection, equal treatment, and human-rights standards. |
| Keywords: | global mobility, digitalisation, European Travel Information and Authorisation System (ETIAS), human-rights standards, Artificial Intelligence, migration, border management, integration, global data economy, Germany, European Union (EU) |
| Date: | 2026 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:swpcom:338259 |
| By: | Shih-Keng Yen; Ernesto F. L. Amaral |
| Abstract: | This study examines how neighborhood status and individual status jointly shape geographic mobility in the United States. Drawing on restricted-use American Community Survey data, we conceptualize neighborhood status as the relative standing of a census tract’s median family income compared to demographically similar reference neighborhoods, and individual status as a household’s relative income rank within its tract. Building on comparison theory and status inconsistency perspectives, we test whether mismatches between neighborhood and individual status influence short-distance (within-county) and long-distance (between-county) mobility. Multinomial logistic models reveal that disadvantaged neighborhood status increases within-county mobility, particularly when paired with high individual status, supporting spatial assimilation arguments. Conversely, low individual status in high-status neighborhoods heightens mobility, consistent with relative deprivation theory rather than status signaling. Results suggest that status inconsistency plays a central role in residential decision-making and that neighborhood status primarily affects short-distance mobility. The findings advance research on stratification and internal migration by integrating relative contextual and positional mechanisms. |
| Keywords: | Neighborhood status, individual status, status inconsistency, geographic mobility, internal migration |
| JEL: | R23 R21 J61 D31 Z13 |
| Date: | 2026–03 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cen:wpaper:26-20 |
| By: | Clemens, Michael (George Mason University) |
| Abstract: | The US government in 2025 imposed a $100, 000 tax on each high-skill foreign worker entering with an H-1B work visa. The only public economic justification calculates the tax to offset an estimated wage penalty for H-1B workers relative to US natives. But this estimate suffers from substantial bias. Reexamining the same data shows that H-1B workers receive a modest wage premium relative to comparable natives, roughly 6% on average—inconsistent with any wage penalty—when using equivalent wage concepts and comparing workers of the same age, gender, education, and tenure, in the same occupation and local labor market. I trace most of the discrepancy to four methodological choices that inflate the prior estimate: 1) undisclosed imputation of missing data, 2) pooling of non-contemporaneous years, 3) a definition of local labor markets contradicting standard economic practice and US law, and 4) failure to consider H-1B workers' low job tenure. The remaining discrepancy arises from comparing incompatible wage concepts for H-1B versus native workers. Beyond measurement, the theory of public economics implies that a revenue-maximizing immigration tax reduces welfare relative to alternatives, even with zero weight on immigrant welfare. |
| Keywords: | immigration, tax, h-1b, skill, stem, worker, labor, welfare, immigrant, nonimmigrant, visa, wages, gap |
| JEL: | J08 J38 J68 H21 |
| Date: | 2026–03 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iza:izadps:dp18435 |
| By: | Giani, Marco; Krakowski, Krzysztof; Târlea, Silvana |
| Abstract: | Humanitarian responses to refugees are typically framed as temporary, yet protracted conflicts blur the line between short-term protection and permanent settlement. We argue that public support for inclusive refugee policies depends on whether refugees are perceived as temporary guests or long-term residents. Using a survey experiment in Poland during the Ukrainian refugee crisis, we study whether citizens misperceive refugees’ intentions to settle permanently and whether correcting such “settlement misperceptions” affects support for inclusive refugee policy. Poles substantially overestimate the share of Ukrainians intending to remain indefinitely. These beliefs are strongly associated with lower support for inclusive refugee policy. Providing factual information about refugees’ actual settlement plans leads to meaningful belief updating and shifts in policy preferences. Corrections increase support among overestimators and decrease it among underestimators, with a net positive effect overall. Effects are strongest for welfare-related policies and extend to generalized affect, though not to social distance. Humanitarian attitudes thus hinge partly on temporal expectations. |
| Date: | 2026–03–13 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:osf:socarx:56pyj_v1 |
| By: | Oscar Claveria (AQR-IREA, University of Barcelona); Claudia Puig (University of Barcelona) |
| Abstract: | This study examines the relationship between income inequality and net migration in Africa over the past two decades. Inequality is gauged by the share of income accruing to the top decile of the income distribution. Net migration rates from 54 countries between 2001 and 2021 are matched to inequality, controlling for origin country unemployment, income per capita, as well as foreign direct investment and economic uncertainty in a fixed-effects panel model. Overall, the results suggest that greater inequality is associated with higher migration rates, as opposed to foreign investment and uncertainty, which are found to be negatively associated with net migration. When replicating the experiment for the different regions—East, Middle, North, South and West Africa—, these results hold in all cases except in West Africa, where the coefficients are not found to be statistically significant. Increases in origin country income per capita are also found to be significantly and positively associated with net migration in North and South Africa, as opposed to country-level unemployment which shows a negatively association with net migration rates. As a robustness check, we replicate both analyses using the Gini coefficient as a measure of aggregate income inequality, obtaining very similar results. Overall, the analysis suggests that increasingly unequal distributions of income may lead to a greater number of people coming in than leaving, somehow contributing to the overall level of population growth in African countries. On the other hand, economic uncertainty, foreign direct investment and unemployment tend to have the opposite effect in most African regions. |
| Keywords: | migration; income inequality; unemployment; foreign direct investment; economic growth; economic uncertainty JEL classification: C50; D31; E62; H50; J11 |
| Date: | 2026–03 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:aqr:wpaper:202603 |
| By: | Rattini, Veronica (University of Bologna); Montinari, Natalia (University of Bologna); Ploner, Matteo (University of Trento) |
| Abstract: | This paper studies whether integration-policy framings affect cooperation in diverse groups. We conduct a lab-in-the-field experiment with 390 adolescents in mixed classrooms in Italy. Within each class, students were randomly assigned to groups receiving either a common-identity framing emphasizing shared school belonging, a multicultural framing highlighting family origins and cultural diversity, or a neutral framing, and then played a public goods game with and without punishment. At baseline, immigrants contributed about 17 percent more than natives. Framing diversity through a multicultural lens increased natives’ contributions by about 13 percent, nearly eliminating the initial cooperation gap, whereas the common-identity framing had no detectable effect. When punishment was introduced, the multicultural framing increased the sanctioning of free riders, particularly among natives. The results suggest that cooperation in diverse settings depends not only on minority integration but also on how majority-group members respond to diversity. Policies that recognize multicultural identities, rather than emphasizing shared belonging alone, can strengthen cooperative norms in heterogeneous environments. |
| Keywords: | cooperation, multiculturalism, public goods, integration, identity priming, natural identity, social identity |
| JEL: | C93 D91 J15 Z13 |
| Date: | 2026–03 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iza:izadps:dp18460 |
| By: | Biehler, Nadine; Meier, Amrei |
| Abstract: | Persons fleeing their homes are exposed not only to physical dangers but also to severe psychological distress - from the ordeal of displacement itself and the experience of violence to unsafe living conditions and a lack of any prospects at their destination. It is not just those directly involved who are affected by the consequences of such traumatic experiences; the social cohesion of societies and their economic development and stability are threatened, too. Both in the political discourse and in international aid programmes, mental health and psychosocial support (MHPSS) in displacement situations is often neglected. But MHPSS measures can have a positive social impact: on coexistence in the host countries and on peace processes in the countries of origin. Thus, they directly support the third dimension of the humanitarian-development-peace (HDP) nexus - the so-called peace pillar. The HDP nexus aims to link humanitarian aid and development to peacebuilding. Such efforts are particularly important in displacement situations. |
| Keywords: | displacement, humanitarian-development-peace (HDP) nexus, mental health and psychosocial support (MHPSS), peacebuilding, reintegration |
| Date: | 2026 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:swpcom:338235 |
| By: | Shih-Keng Yen; Ernesto F. L. Amaral |
| Abstract: | Drawing on American Community Survey data, this study examines how whites’ relative socioeconomic standing vis-à-vis nonwhite neighbors affects the association between minority presence and white out-mobility. Moving beyond the racial preferences versus racial proxy debate, we integrate group competition and contact theories with status theory to conceptualize “racial status” as whites’ first-order income rank relative to the subgroup status of Black, Hispanic, and Asian residents at the census tract level. Multilevel linear probability models show that whites lacking advantaged status are generally more likely to move. However, the positive association between Black or Asian concentration and white departure is weaker among status-disadvantaged whites, while the negative association with Hispanic concentration is stronger. These patterns lend greater support to contact theory than to group competition theory. By foregrounding relative status, the study demonstrates that racial and socioeconomic mechanisms are intertwined in shaping white residential mobility. |
| Keywords: | White out-mobility, racial status, residential segregation, group competition and contact theory, neighborhood racial composition |
| JEL: | R23 J15 Z13 D31 J61 |
| Date: | 2026–03 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cen:wpaper:26-19 |
| By: | van Asselt, Joanna; Naing, Phyo Thandar |
| Abstract: | Remittances have emerged as an important source of income for households in post-coup Myanmar. This paper utilizes data from the seventh and fourth rounds of the Myanmar Household Welfare Survey (MHWS) to analyze remittance trends between January and June 2024 with trends from July to December 2022. These two rounds are compared because they both contain detailed questions on remittances. Between January and June 2024, 16 percent of households received remittances from at least one member who was residing overseas or in a different state or region. This comprises nine percent of households receiving remittances from migrants outside of Myanmar and eight percent of households receiving remittances from migrants within Myanmar. Around 12 percent of households received remittances from a single migrant and four percent of households received remittances from two or more members. In any three-month period between January-June 2024, more households in Kayin, Mon, and Tanintharyi received remittances than households in other states/regions. Among households that received remittances from within Myanmar, they received an average of MMK 173, 768 per month (about 49 USD). Households that received remittances from outside of Myanmar received around MMK 499, 386 per month (about 141 USD), significantly higher than the amount from migrants within Myanmar. Reliance on remittances among recipients has grown since 2021. Remittances made up 33 percent of household income between September 2021 and February 2022, compared to 45 percent of household income between January and June 2024. Finally, budget share of international remittances increased from 15 percent of household income between September 2021 and February 2024 to 26 percent between April and June 2024, underscoring the growing importance of remittances from abroad for household welfare in Myanmar. |
| Keywords: | remittances; households; social protection; Myanmar; Asia; South-eastern Asia |
| Date: | 2025–07–24 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:ifprwp:175804 |
| By: | Caitlin Hegarty (Williams College); Mishita Mehra (University of Richmond); ; |
| Abstract: | "The U.S. H-1B program helps firms hire high-skilled foreign workers, but increasingly faces a binding annual cap that is allocated through lottery-based rationing. When candidates differ in productivity and firms face imperfect information at hiring, workforce productivity and domestic outcomes become endogenous to policy design. We document higher average wages among foreign-born workers in H-1B intensive occupations, consistent with positive selection among applicants. We rationalize this pattern with a quantitative general equilibrium search and matching model with heterogeneous worker productivity, noisy screening, H-1B filing costs, and an endogenously binding cap. The calibrated model explains half of the wage gap we observe in the data. We use the model to evaluate recent reforms that replace uniform lottery selection with wage-weighted selection. Under the existing cap, wage-weighted reallocation increases average foreign-hire productivity by about 4.7%, raises skilled-sector output by about 0.09%, has limited negative impacts on domestic skilled wages, while slightly increasing domestic skilled employment and unskilled wages. Matching the same foreign productivity gain through higher filing costs or a tighter cap instead reduces vacancy creation and generates negative effects on domestic skilled employment and wages. The gains from reallocation are attenuated when the foreign applicant pool shrinks and when firms can strategically bunch wages at tier cutoffs." |
| Keywords: | High-skilled immigration, Immigration policy, Search and matching, Worker heterogeneity |
| JEL: | F22 |
| Date: | 2026–02–17 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:wil:wileco:2026_107 |
| By: | Parag Mahajan |
| Abstract: | This memo documents efforts to understand and improve the quality of data produced through Census Bureau business surveys by developing an imputation model for foreign-born ownership of businesses that can extend backward in time, to the 2002 Survey of Business Owners. It uses a model selection procedure that ultimately selects a random forest model with good out-of-sample prediction capability (AUC = 0.86). It then estimates that foreign-born individuals founded 16% of new employer businesses that started between 1998 and 2002. This estimate extends the longest known U.S. time series on immigrant entrepreneurship that does not rely on self-employment as a proxy for entrepreneurship. |
| Keywords: | SBO, ABS, LBD, Decennial, ACS |
| Date: | 2026–02 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cen:tnotes:26-03 |