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on Macroeconomics |
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Issue of 2011‒02‒19
24 papers chosen by Soumitra K Mallick Indian Institute of Social Welfare and Business Management |
| By: | Peter N. Ireland (Boston College) |
| Abstract: | This paper uses a New Keynesian model with banks and deposits, calibrated to match the US economy, to study the macroeconomic effects of policies that pay interest on reserves. While their effects on output and inflation are small, these policies require important adjustments in the way that the monetary authority manages the supply of reserves, as liquidity effects vanish and households' portfolio shifts increase banks' demand for reserves when short-term interest rates rise. Money and monetary policy remain linked in the long run, however, since policy actions that change the price level must change the supply of reserves proportionately. |
| Keywords: | banking, reserves, interest, central banking |
| JEL: | E31 E32 E51 E52 E58 |
| Date: | 2011–02–01 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:boc:bocoec:772&r=mac |
| By: | Belliveau, Stefan |
| Abstract: | An analysis of the impact from stabilizing instruments important to macroeconomic policy on output in the US is presented. A simple approach to identify the influence of macroeconomic-policy instruments, based on the St. Louis equation, is clearly presented and examined using annual US data from 1956-2007. The conclusion from this analysis is that both monetary and fiscal policy are viable options for policymakers seeking to stabilize output. |
| Keywords: | Business cycles; monetary policy; fiscal policy |
| JEL: | E32 E63 |
| Date: | 2011–02–08 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:28771&r=mac |
| By: | Costas Karfakis (Department of Economics, University of Macedonia) |
| Abstract: | The relationship between money and output in the euro area is tested in the context of a two-equation model. An interesting aspect of the empirical analysis is the evidence that the real M3 has a correctly signed and statistically significant impact on business cycle fluctuations, given the real interest rate and foreign output. This finding supports the argument made by proponents of monetarism that the effects of monetary policy actions on the real economy are not fully captured by the short-term real interest rate. |
| Keywords: | Output gap, real money, real interest rate, simultaneous equations methods. |
| JEL: | E32 E51 E52 E58 |
| Date: | 2011–01 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:mcd:mcddps:2011_01&r=mac |
| By: | B. HOFMANN; G. PEERSMAN; R. STRAUB |
| Abstract: | This paper explores time variation in the dynamic effects of technology shocks on U.S. output, prices, interest rates as well as real and nominal wages. The results indicate considerable time variation in U.S. wage dynamics that can be linked to the monetary policy regime. Before and after the "Great Inflation", nominal wages moved in the same direction as the (required) adjustment of real wages, and in the opposite direction of the price response. During the "Great Inflation", technology shocks in contrast triggered wage-price spirals, moving nominal wages and prices in the same direction at longer horizons, thus counteracting the required adjustment of real wages, amplifying the ultimate repercussions on prices and hence increasing inflation volatility. Using a standard DSGE model, we show that these stylized facts, in particular the estimated magnitudes, can only be explained by assuming a high degree of wage indexation in conjunction with a weak reaction of monetary policy to inflation during the "Great Inflation", and low indexation together with aggressive inflation stabilization of monetary policy before and after this period. This means that the monetary policy regime is not only captured by the parameters of the monetary policy rule, but importantly also by the degree of wage indexation and resultant second round effects in the labor market. Accordingly, the degree of wage indexation is not structural in the sense of Lucas (1976). |
| Keywords: | technology shocks, second-round effects, Great Inflation |
| JEL: | C32 E24 E31 E42 E52 |
| Date: | 2010–11 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:rug:rugwps:10/691&r=mac |
| By: | Adam S. Posen (Peterson Institute for International Economics) |
| Abstract: | Adam S. Posen presents his view on the role of monetary policy in the global economic recovery, in particular in the large Western countries, and whether the major central banks in the United Kingdom and beyond should be doing more in the coming months. Posen argues that monetary policy should continue to be aggressive about promoting recovery, and further quantitative easing should be undertaken. Policymakers face a clear and sustained uphill battle, in which monetary ease has an ongoing role to play, even if it may not deliver the desired sustained recovery on its own. In every major economy, actual output has fallen so much versus where trend growth would have put them, and trend growth has not been above potential for long enough as yet, that there remains a significant gap between what the economy could be producing at full employment and what it currently produces. Thus, policymakers should not settle for weak growth out of misplaced fear of inflation. If price stability is at risk over the medium term, it is on the downside. There are, however, some very serious risks if policy errors are made by tightening prematurely or even by loosening insufficiently. The risks that Posen believes the United Kingdom and other major Western countries face now are those of sustained low growth and near deflation turning into a self-fulfilling prophecy (as in Japan in the 1990s and in the United States and Europe in the 1930s) and/or of inducing a political reaction that could undermine these countries' long-run stability and prosperity. Inaction by central banks could ratify decisions both by businesses to lastingly shrink the economy's productive capacity and by investors to avoid risk and prefer cash. These tendencies are already present, and insufficient monetary response is likely to worsen them. The combination of these risks with the potential attainable gains motivates Posen's call for additional monetary policy stimulus. |
| Date: | 2010–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iie:pbrief:pb10-24&r=mac |
| By: | Ashima Goyal (Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research) |
| Abstract: | Since a crisis is a shock impinging on a system, the response can be used to deduce aspects of the system's structure. Analysis of the crisis and recovery suggests aggregate supply in India is elastic but subject to upward shocks. This has implications for the exit and for fiscal consolidation. Both monetary and fiscal policy should identify measures that would reduce costs, while preventing too large a demand contraction. Specific policies are identified and Indian policies evaluated. |
| Keywords: | Crisis, fiscal and monetary policy, exit, aggregate supply elasticity |
| JEL: | E10 E52 E62 |
| Date: | 2010–12 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ind:igiwpp:2010-025&r=mac |
| By: | Gregor Schwerhoff (BGSE - Bonn Graduate School of Economics - BGSE); Mouhamadou Sy (PSE - Paris-Jourdan Sciences Economiques - CNRS : UMR8545 - Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales (EHESS) - Ecole des Ponts ParisTech - Ecole Normale Supérieure de Paris - ENS Paris - INRA, EEP-PSE - Ecole d'Économie de Paris - Paris School of Economics - Ecole d'Économie de Paris) |
| Abstract: | The dramatic decline in inflation across the world over the last 20 years has been largely credited to improved monetary policy. The universal nature of the phenomenon and its simultaneity with globalization however indicate that there might also be a “real” side to it. We build a model based on Melitz (2003) in which falling transport cost lead to greater openness, higher productivity and lower inflation. Following a decline in transport cost openness increases and firm selection eliminates the least productive domestic firms. The consequent increase in average productivity leads to falling relative prices for goods. A cash-in-advance constraint allows to analyse how falling relative prices can lead to lower inflation. Using a dataset of macroeconomic variables for 107 countries from all world regions we are able to show that openness-induced productivity growth leads to a significant decline in inflation world wide. |
| Keywords: | globalization ; openness ; productivity ; disinflation |
| Date: | 2010–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:psewpa:halshs-00564957&r=mac |
| By: | Fabio Verona (Universidade do Porto, Faculdade de Economia and CEF.UP); Manuel M. F. Martins (Universidade do Porto, Faculdade de Economia and CEF.UP); Inês Drumond (Universidade do Porto, Faculdade de Economia and CEF.UP, and GPEARI-MFAP) |
| Abstract: | This paper is motivated by the recent financial crisis and addresses whether a “too low for too long” interest rate policy may generate a boom-bust cycle. We suggest a model in which a microfounded shadow banking sector is included in an otherwise state-of-the-art DSGE model. When faced with perverse incentives, financial intermediaries within the shadow banking sector can divert a fraction of stockholders’ profits for their own benefits and extend credit at a discounted rate. The model predicts that long periods of accommodative monetary policy do create the preconditions for, but do not cause per se, a boom-bust cycle. Rather, it is the combination of a persistent monetary ease with microeconomic distortions in the financial system that causes a boom-bust. |
| Keywords: | monetary policy; DSGE model; shadow banking system; boom-bust |
| JEL: | E32 E44 E52 G24 |
| Date: | 2011–02 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:por:cetedp:1101&r=mac |
| By: | Mustafa Caglayan; Ozge Kandemir; Kostas Mouratidis (Department of Economics, The University of Sheffield) |
| Abstract: | We empirically investigate the effects of inflation uncertainty on output growth for the US using both monthly and quarterly data over 1985-2009. Employing a Markov regime switching approach to model output dynamics, we show that inflation uncertainty obtained from a Markov regime switching GARCH model exerts a negative and regime dependant impact on output growth. In particular, we show that the negative impact of inflation uncertainty on output growth is almost 4.5 times higher during the low growth regime than that during the high growth regime. We verify the robustness of our findings using quarterly data |
| Keywords: | Growth, inflation uncertainty, Markov-switching modeling, Markov-switching GARCH |
| JEL: | E31 E32 |
| Date: | 2011–02 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:shf:wpaper:2011002&r=mac |
| By: | Alessandro Calza (European Central Bank); Andrea Zaghini (Bank of Italy) |
| Abstract: | Estimates of the welfare costs of inflation based on Bailey's (1956) methodology are typically computed on the basis of aggregate money demand models. Yet, the behavior of money demand is likely to vary across sectors. As a result, the impact on welfare of changes in the inflation regime may differ between households and firms. We specifically investigate the sectoral welfare implications of the shift from the Great Inflation to the present regime of low and stable inflation. In order to do so, we estimate different functional specifications of sectoral money demand models for US households and non-financial firms using flow of funds data covering four decades. We find that the benefits were significant for both households and firms. |
| Keywords: | welfare cost of inflation, flow of funds data, demand for money |
| JEL: | E41 C22 |
| Date: | 2011–01 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:bdi:wptemi:td_785_11&r=mac |
| By: | NUTAHARA Kengo; INABA Masaru |
| Abstract: | The premise of business cycle accounting (BCA) is that the prototype model with time-varying wedges can replicate allocations generated by a large class of models with frictions: the so called equivalence results. However, some recent papers show that the equivalence results do not hold in many models under the conventional VAR(1) assumption for wedges. In order to assess the empirical usefulness of BCA, we apply BCA to a widely used medium-scale DSGE economy, where the equivalence results do not hold. Based on our experiments, the difference between the measured and true wedges is quantitatively quite small and BCA can capture the business cycle implications of wedges almost correctly. |
| Date: | 2011–02 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:eti:dpaper:11005&r=mac |
| By: | Deepankar Basu; Duncan K. Foley |
| Abstract: | This paper investigates the changing relationship between employment and real output in the U.S. economy from 1948 to 2010 both at the aggregate level and at some major industry-grouping levels of disaggregation. Real output is conventionally measured as value added corrected for price inflation, but there are some industries in which no independent measure of value added is possible and existing statistics depend on imputing value added to equal income. Indexes of output that exclude these imputations are closely correlated with employment over the whole period, and remain more closely correlated during the current business cycle. This analysis offers insights into deeper structural changes that have taken place in the U.S. economy over the past few decades in a context marked by the following three factors: (i) the service (especially the financial) sector has grown in importance, (ii) the economy has become more globalized, and (iii) the policy orientation has increasingly become neoliberal. We demonstrate an economically significant reduction in the coefficient relating employment growth to output growth over the business cycles since 1985. Some of this change is due to sectoral shifts toward services, but an important part of it reflects a reduction in the coefficient for the goods and material value-adding sectors. |
| Keywords: | Okun's Law; Kaldor-Verdoorn Eect; Global restructuring; measurement of real output |
| JEL: | E12 E20 |
| Date: | 2011 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:uma:periwp:wp248&r=mac |
| By: | Francisco Marcos Rodrigues Figueiredo |
| Abstract: | The objective of this paper is to verify if exploiting the large data set available to the Central Bank of Brazil, makes it possible to obtain forecast models that are serious competitors to models typically used by the monetary authorities for forecasting inflation. Some empirical issues such as the optimal number of variables to extract the factors are also addressed. I find that the best performance of the data rich models is usually for 6-step ahead forecasts. Furthermore, the factor model with targeted predictors presents the best results among other data-rich approaches, whereas PLS forecasts show a relative poor performance. |
| Date: | 2010–12 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:bcb:wpaper:228&r=mac |
| By: | Frankel, Jeffrey (Harvard Kennedy School) |
| Abstract: | Historically, many countries have suffered a pattern of procyclical fiscal policy: spending too much in booms and then forced to cut back in recessions, thereby exacerbating the business cycle. This problem has especially plagued Latin American commodity-producers. Since 2000, fiscal policy in Chile has been governed by a structural budget rule that has succeeded in implementing countercyclical fiscal policy. The key innovation is that the two most important estimates of the structural versus cyclical components of the budget - trend output and the 10-year price of copper - are made by expert panels and thus insulated from the political process. Chile's fiscal institutions could usefully be emulated everywhere, but especially in other commodity-exporting countries. This paper finds statistical support for a series of hypotheses regarding forecasts by official agencies that have responsibility for formulating the budget. 1) Official forecasts of budgets and GDP in a 33-country sample are overly optimistic on average. 2) The bias toward over-optimism is stronger the longer the horizon 3) The bias is greater among European governments that are politically subject to the budget rules in the Stability and Growth Pact (SGP). 4) The bias is greater at the extremes of the business cycle, particularly in booms. 5) In most countries, the real growth rate is the key macroeconomic input for budget forecasting. In Chile it is the price of copper. 6) Real copper prices mean-revert in the long run, but this is not always readily perceived. 7) Chile's official forecasts are not overly optimistic on average. 8) Chile has apparently avoided the problem of official forecasts that unrealistically extrapolate in boom times. The conclusion: official forecasts, if not insulated from politics, tend to be overly optimistic, and the problem can be worse when the government is formally subject to budget rules. The key innovation that has allowed Chile in general to achieve countercyclical fiscal policy, and in particular to run surpluses in booms, is not just a structural budget rule in itself, but a regime that entrusts to panels of independent experts the responsibility for estimating the extent to which contemporaneous copper prices and GDP have departed from their long-run trends. |
| JEL: | E62 F41 H50 O54 Q33 |
| Date: | 2011–02 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ecl:harjfk:11-012&r=mac |
| By: | Ivan Kitov; Oleg Kitov |
| Abstract: | A quantitative model is presented linking the rate of inflation and unemployment to the change in the level of labor force. The link between the involved variables is a linear one with all coefficients of individual and generalized models obtained empirically. To achieve the best fit between measured and predicted time series cumulative curves are used as a simplified version of the 1-D boundary elements method. All models for Australia are similar to those obtained for the US, France, Japan and other developed countries and thus validate the concept and related quantitative model. |
| Date: | 2011–02 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:arx:papers:1102.1851&r=mac |
| By: | Markus Bruckner (School of Economics, University of Adelaide); Anita Tuladhar (International Monetary Fund) |
| Abstract: | We use a rich dataset of regional government expenditures for Japan during the 1990-2000 period to estimate from within-prefecture variation the multiplier of government investment and government consumption expenditures. Our main finding is that government spending did not have multipliers effects that are on average larger than one. Government investment had a positive and significant effect on output that was quantitatively larger than the effect of government consumption expenditures. Government personnel expenditures and transfers to households had significant negative output effects while transfers to firms produced positive multiplier effects that were significantly larger than one. Our findings are consistent with macro model that emphasize the supplyside effects of fiscal policy during times of financial crisis. |
| Keywords: | fiscal policy, fiscal multipliers |
| JEL: | E62 H30 |
| Date: | 2011–02 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:adl:wpaper:2011-10&r=mac |
| By: | BELLOU Andriana; KAYMAK Baris |
| Abstract: | This paper examines the cyclical behavior of hours and wages in a unique panel of 11 European countries, and documents signi?cant history dependence in wages. Workers who experience favorable market conditions during their tenure on the job, have higher wages, and work fewer labor hours. Unobserved differences in productivity, such as varying job quality, or match-speci?c productivity are not likely to explain this variation. The results instead point to the importance of contractual arrangements in wage determination. In economies with decentralized bargaining practices, such arrangements resemble self-enforcing insurance contracts with onesided commitment (by the employer). On the other hand, in countries with strong unions and centralized wage bargaining, wage behavior is better approximated by full-commitment insurance contracts. |
| Keywords: | Business Cycles; Wage Rigidity; Implicit Contracts |
| JEL: | E32 J31 J41 |
| Date: | 2011–01 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:irs:cepswp:2011-13&r=mac |
| By: | Julie Subervie (CERDI - Centre d'études et de recherches sur le developpement international - CNRS : UMR6587 - Université d'Auvergne - Clermont-Ferrand I) |
| Abstract: | This paper aims at analyzing the effect of world price instability on the aggregate agricultural supply of developing countries and determining to what extent this effect depends on the macroeconomic environment. Producers of agricultural commodity-exporting countries are particularly vulnerable to the fluctuations of world prices : they are exposed to price shocks and their ability to cope with them is weak. But the effectiveness of risk coping strategies is conditional on the influence of macroeconomic factors. We test the impact of international price instability on the aggregate agricultural supply, taking account of some features of the national environment (infrastructure, inflation, and financial deepening). The analysis is based on a sample of 25 countries during the period 1961-2002. Results from panel data highlight a significant negative effect of international price instability on aggregate agricultural supply. Moreover, they show that high inflation, weak infrastructure and poorly developed financial system contribute to reinforce this effect. |
| Keywords: | aggregate supply;price instability;inflation;infrastructure;financial deepening |
| Date: | 2011–02–09 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:wpaper:halshs-00564577&r=mac |
| By: | Fernando Borraz (Banco Central del Uruguay y Departamento de Economía, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad de la República); Leandro Zipitria (Universidad de Montevideo and Universidad de San Andrés) |
| Abstract: | We use a rich and unique dataset of 20 million daily prices in groceries and supermarkets across the country to analyze stylized facts of the behaviour of consumer prices. Our findings are as follows: i) The median duration of prices is little over 2 months. Therefore, retail prices in Uruguay are less sticky than in the US but stickier than in the UK. ii) We do not find evidence of a seasonal pattern in the likelihood of price adjustments. iii) The frequency of price adjustment varies positively with expected inflation for the food and personal care product categories. However, in the alcohol and soft drink categories we find that firms increase the percentage points of the adjustment and not its frequency. iv) The probability of price change in the first day of the month is seven times higher than in any another day. v) The probability of a price change is not constant over time. |
| Keywords: | Retail; micro data; prices; price volatility; sticky prices. |
| JEL: | E31 D40 L16 L81 |
| Date: | 2011–01 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ude:wpaper:0211&r=mac |
| By: | Dai, Meixing |
| Abstract: | This paper extends the results of Kobayashi (2003) and Ciccarone and Marchetti (2009) by considering the optimal choice of central bank conservativeness. It is shown that the government can choose a sufficiently populist but opaque central banker so that higher multiplicative uncertainty improves the social welfare only when the society is very conservative. |
| Keywords: | Multiplicative uncertainty; optimal degree of conservativeness; Brainard conservatism; central bank transparency. |
| JEL: | E58 E52 |
| Date: | 2010–06 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:28548&r=mac |
| By: | Leo Kaas (Department of Economics, University of Konstanz, Germany); Philipp Kircher (Department of Economics, London School of Economics and University of Pennsylvania, USA) |
| Abstract: | The introduction of firm size into labor search models raises the question how wages are set when average and marginal product differ. We develop and analyze an alternative to the existing bargaining framework: Firms compete for labor by publicly posting long-term contracts. In such a competitive search setting, firms achieve faster growth not only by posting more vacancies, but also by offering higher lifetime wages that attract more workers which allows to fill vacancies with higher probability, consistent with empirical regularities.The model also captures several other observations about firm size, job flows, and pay. In contrast to bargaining models, efficiency obtains on all margins of job creation and destruction, both with idiosyncratic and aggregate shocks. The planner solution allows a tractable characterization which is useful for computational applications. |
| Keywords: | Labor market search, multi-worker firms, job creation and job destruction |
| JEL: | E24 J64 L11 |
| Date: | 2011–01–20 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:knz:dpteco:1101&r=mac |
| By: | Acharya, Viral V. (Asian Development Bank Institute); Cooley, Thomas (Asian Development Bank Institute); Richardson, Matthew (Asian Development Bank Institute); Walter, Ingo (Asian Development Bank Institute) |
| Abstract: | The paper analyzes the financial crisis of 2007–2009 through the lens of market failures and regulatory failures and presents a case that there were four primary failures contributing to the crisis: excessive risk-taking in the financial sector due to mispriced government guarantees; regulatory focus on individual institution risk rather than systemic risk; opacity of positions in financial derivatives that produced externalities from individual firm failures; and runs on the unregulated banking sector that eventually threatened to bring down the entire financial sector. In emphasizing the role of regulatory failures, the paper provides a description of regulatory evolution in response to the panic of 1907 and the Great Depression, why the regulation put in place then was successful in addressing market failures, but how, over time, especially around the resolutions of Continental Illinois, Savings and Loans crisis and the Long-Term Capital Management, expectations of too-big-to-fail status got anchored. The paper proposes specific reforms to address the four market and regulatory failures we identify, and we conclude with some lessons for emerging markets. |
| Keywords: | global financial crisis; LTCM; market failures; regulation; emerging markets |
| JEL: | E44 G15 G18 G21 G24 |
| Date: | 2011–02–08 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ris:adbiwp:0264&r=mac |
| By: | Cecilia Frale (MEF-Ministry of the Economy and Finance-Italy, Treasury Department); Libero Monteforte (Bank of Italy and MEF-Ministry of the Economy and Finance-Italy, Treasury Department) |
| Abstract: | In this paper a dynamic factor model with mixed frequency is proposed (FaMIDAS), where the past observations of high frequency indicators are used following the MIDAS approach. This structure is able to represent with richer dynamics the information content of the economic indicators and produces smoothed factors and forecasts. In addition, the Kalman filter is applied, which is particularly suited for dealing with unbalanced data set and revisions in the preliminary data. In the empirical application for the Italian quarterly GDP the short-term forecasting performance is evaluated against other mixed frequency models in a pseudo-real time experiment, also allowing for pooled forecast from factor models. |
| Keywords: | mixed frequency models, dynamic factor models, MIDAS,forecasting. |
| JEL: | E32 E37 C53 |
| Date: | 2011–01 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:bdi:wptemi:td_788_11&r=mac |
| By: | Valentina Cancela (Banco de Datos de Economía e Historia Económica. Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad de la República); Cecilia Lara (Banco de Datos de Economía e Historia Económica. Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad de la República); Susana Picardo Prats (Banco de Datos de Economía e Historia Económica. Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad de la República) |
| Abstract: | Despite the Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE) in Uruguay has calculated and published disaggregated data on real manufacturing production index since 1982 –the Volume Index–, the methodological changes that took place in 1988, 2002 and 2006 determined that the resulting subsets of data are not fully comparable, thus preventing the use of complete time series. These differing criteria in building the volume and price index relate to using diverse definitions of the relevant value of production (including or not taxes, eg) and production units (establishments versus firms), as well as to the use of distinct classifications of manufacturing industries (Revisions 2 and 3). Here we propose a methodology for constructing 1982-2009 compatible constant-prices disaggregated production index as well as price index, using both Paasche and Laspeyres formula. |
| Keywords: | Volume Index, Price index, Index of Hours Worked and employed Personnel, economic activities, joint, manufacturing |
| JEL: | E23 E32 |
| Date: | 2010–11 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ude:wpaper:2310&r=mac |