|
on Labour Economics |
| By: | Melanie Borah; Andreas Knabe; Christine Lücke |
| Abstract: | This paper examines possible spillover effects of parental unemployment on the subjective wellbeing of 12- to 21-year-old children. Using German panel data (SOEP), we show that unemployment of fathers and mothers is negatively associated with their children’s life satisfaction. When controlling for time-invariant individual heterogeneity, our results suggest that maternal unemployment has negative effects, while no effect of fathers’ unemployment can be detected. In subgroup analyses, we do not find differential impacts between sons and daughters or between younger and older children. Further results suggest that the impact of parental unemployment differs between high- and low-unemployment regions. |
| Keywords: | unemployment, life satisfaction, happiness, children, intergenerational transmission |
| JEL: | I31 J13 J63 J64 |
| Date: | 2023 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ces:ceswps:_10776&r=lab |
| By: | Peltonen, Juho |
| Abstract: | This paper estimates the extent to which unemployment in Germany would have been increased during the Covid-19 recession without a short-time work (STW) labor-market policy which enables employers to reduce temporarily the working hours of full-time workers. A Bayesian estimation of a general equilibrium model with a STW policy, and a simulation of a counterfactual model without STW, show that the German unemployment rate would have been 4.2 percentage points higher without the policy. These results indicate that the STW participates in preventing excess job destruction during economic downturns, and in stabilizing unemployment fluctuations over business cycles. |
| Keywords: | Search and matching, short-time work, Bayesian estimation |
| JEL: | E24 E32 J63 |
| Date: | 2023–11 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:119238&r=lab |
| By: | Robert E. Hall; Marianna Kudlyak |
| Abstract: | We propose that the natural rate of unemployment has an active role in the business cycle, in contrast to the prevailing view that the rate is essentially constant. We demonstrate that this tendency to treat the natural rate as near-constant would explain the surprisingly low slope of the Phillips curve. We show that the natural rate closely tracked the actual rate during the long recovery that began in 2009 and ended in 2020. We explain how the common finding of research in the Phillips-curve framework of low---often extremely low---response of inflation to unemployment could be the result of fairly close tracking of the natural rate and the actual rate in recoveries. Our interpretation of the data contrasts to that of most Phillips-curve studies, that conclude that inflation has little relation to unemployment. We suggest that the flat Phillips curve is an illusion caused by assuming that the natural rate of unemployment has little or no movement during recoveries. |
| JEL: | E32 J63 J64 |
| Date: | 2023–11 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:nbr:nberwo:31848&r=lab |
| By: | Andrea M. Flores; George-Levi Gayle; Andrés Hincapié |
| Abstract: | We study the effects of job-protected leave policies on intergenerational mobility, long-run child outcomes, and parental decisions (labor market, investments in children, and fertility). We merge rich sources of historical information on family leave policies across the United States since 1973 with over 40 years of survey data covering two generations of individuals. Exploiting variation in the timing of job-protected leave policies introduced in a large set of 18 states and the District of Columbia before the enactment of the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) in 1993, we find that the pre-FMLA protected leave policies had a level effect and a mobility effect. The level effect yields from overall improvements in education and wages for the children born under these policies. The mobility effect, chiefly an increase in intergenerational mobility in education, stems from heterogeneity in the effects of the policies: children of mothers with fewer years of education benefit more. As a potential mechanism, we find that the policies increased mothers’ time investments in children and the likelihood of the households having childcare expenses. Finally, consistent with the tradeoffs of policy design, we find that the policies exacerbated the motherhood penalty in labor market outcomes and that they affected fertility choices, increasing the likelihood of having a first child and decreasing the likelihood of having subsequent children. |
| JEL: | I24 I38 J13 J22 |
| Date: | 2023–11 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:nbr:nberwo:31911&r=lab |
| By: | Gentile, Elisabetta (Asian Development Bank); Kohli , Nikita (Duke University); Subramanian, Nivedhitha (Bates College); Tirmazee, Zunia (Lahore School of Economics); Vyborny, Kate (Duke University) |
| Abstract: | Gender gaps in labor market outcomes persist in South Asia. An open question is whether supply or demand side constraints play a larger role. We investigate this using matched data from three sources in Lahore, Pakistan: representative samples of jobseekers and employers; administrative data from a job matching platform; and an incentivized resume rating experiment. Employers’ gender restrictions are a larger constraint on women’s job opportunities than supply-side decisions. At higher levels of education, demand-side barriers relax, allowing women to qualify for more jobs but at lower salaries. On the supply side, educated women become more selective in their search. |
| Keywords: | gender; discrimination; job search; jobs platform; vacancies; applications |
| JEL: | J16 J22 J23 R23 |
| Date: | 2023–12–11 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ris:adbewp:0707&r=lab |
| By: | Riley Wilson |
| Abstract: | I document a new fact about mobility within the United States. County-to-county migration and commuting drop discretely at state borders. People are three times as likely to move to a county 15 miles away, but in the same state, than to an equally-distant county across state lines. Standard economic explanations, like differences in amenities or moving costs, have little explanatory power. Experimental evidence suggests many people experience “home state bias” and discount out-of-state moves, independent of whether social ties are present. This pattern has real economic costs, resulting in local labor markets that are less dynamic after negative economic shocks. |
| Keywords: | internal migration, commuting, social networks, home state bias, border discontinuities |
| JEL: | J61 R23 D91 |
| Date: | 2023 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ces:ceswps:_10724&r=lab |
| By: | Stefan Jestl (The Vienna Institute for International Economic Studies, wiiw); Michael Landesmann (The Vienna Institute for International Economic Studies, wiiw); Sebastian Leitner (The Vienna Institute for International Economic Studies, wiiw); Sandra M. Leitner (The Vienna Institute for International Economic Studies, wiiw); Isilda Mara (The Vienna Institute for International Economic Studies, wiiw); Maryna Tverdostup (The Vienna Institute for International Economic Studies, wiiw) |
| Abstract: | This Policy Note reports on the analyses undertaken in a number of wiiw Working Papers that are the output of two projects financed by the Anniversary Fund of the Austrian National Bank (Project no. 18474 and no. 17166). Four of the papers are based on survey data from the FIMAS dataset, which has been compiled over the years by the International Centre for Migration Policy Development (ICMPD), together with wiiw, and which document the experiences of recent waves of refugees from Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq and Syria. The topics covered in these four papers are as follows. First, an analysis of the pattern of occupational status loss (or gain) that refugees experience in the course of the move from their home countries to the destination country (Austria), focusing on the move from the jobs they had prior to the move, to their first job in Austria and then to their second or current job. Second, an examination of the effectiveness of two of the labour market integration programmes offered by the Austrian public employment service (AMS) the Competence Check and the Voluntary Integration Year programme. Third, an investigation into the interrelationships between aspects of the ‘social integration’ and the ‘labour market integration’ of refugees. Fourth, an analysis of the factors determining (or related to) the mental health problems that this wave of refugees has had to cope with. A fifth paper is based on the register-based labour market career data provided by Statistics Austria it examines a number of issues (job entry, job quality, job stability) related to the trajectories of refugees’ labour market experiences in Austria, compared to other non-European migrants from low- and medium-income countries. |
| Keywords: | Refugees, labour market integration, occupational trajectories, refugee integration programmes, social integration, mental health |
| JEL: | C13 C41 F22 H43 I10 J15 J24 J62 J68 |
| Date: | 2023–12 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:wii:pnotes:pn:74&r=lab |
| By: | Joan Monras; Eduardo Polo-Muro; Javier Vazquez-Grenno |
| Abstract: | This paper studies how fertility decisions respond to an improvement in job stability using variation from the large and unexpected regularization of undocumented immigrants in Spain implemented during the first half of 2005. This policy change improved substantially the labor market opportunities of affected men and women, many of which left the informality of house keeping service sectors toward more formal, stable, and higher paying jobs in larger firms (Elias et al., 2023). In this paper, we estimate the effects of the regularization on fertility rates using two alternative difference-in-differences strategies that compare fertility behavior of “eligible” and “non-eligible” candidate women to obtain the legal status, both on aggregate and at the local level. Our findings suggests that gaining work permits leads to a significant increase in women fertility. Our preferred estimates indicate that the regularization increased fertility rates among affected women by around 5 points, which is a 10 percent increase. |
| Keywords: | labor markets; stability; fertility; immigration policy |
| JEL: | J13 J61 K37 |
| Date: | 2023–11–14 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fip:fedfwp:97339&r=lab |
| By: | Eckstein, Zvi (Reichman University); Keane, Michael P. (Johns Hopkins University); Lifshitz, Osnat (Reichman University) |
| Abstract: | In the 1960 cohort, American men and women graduated from college at the same rate, and this was true for Whites, Blacks and Hispanics. But in more recent cohorts, women graduate at much higher rates than men. To understand the emerging gender education gap, we formulate and estimate a model of individual and family decision-making where education, labor supply, marriage and fertility are all endogenous. Assuming preferences that are common across ethnic groups and fixed over cohorts, our model explains differences in all endogenous variables by gender/ethnicity for the '60-'80 cohorts based on three exogenous factors: family background, labor market and marriage market constraints. Changes in parental background are a key factor driving the growing gender education gap: Women with college educated mothers get greater utility from college, and are much more likely to graduate themselves. The marriage market also contributes: Women's chance of getting marriage offers at older ages has increased, enabling them to defer marriage. The labor market is the largest factor: Improvement in women's labor market return to college in recent cohorts accounts for 50% of the increase in their graduation rate. But the labor market returns to college are still greater for men. Women go to college more because their overall return is greater, after factoring in marriage market returns and their greater utility from college attendance. We predict the recent large increases in women's graduation rates will cause their children's graduation rates to increase further. But growth in the aggregate graduation rate will slow substantially, due to significant increases in the share of Hispanics – a group with a low graduation rate – in recent birth cohorts. |
| Keywords: | returns to college, parental background, college graduation, education, gender wage gap, assortative mating, labor supply, marriage, fertility |
| JEL: | J08 J12 J21 E24 |
| Date: | 2023–11 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iza:izadps:dp16612&r=lab |
| By: | Nikolova, Milena (University of Groningen); Lepinteur, Anthony (University of Luxembourg); Cnossen, Femke (University of Groningen) |
| Abstract: | Using survey data from 20 European countries, we construct novel worker-level indices of routine, abstract, social, and physical tasks across 20 European countries, which we combine with industry-level robotization exposure. Our conceptual framework builds on the insight that robotization simultaneously replaces, creates, and modifies workers' tasks and studies how these forces impact workers' job content. We rely on instrumental variable techniques and show that robotization reduces physically demanding activities. Yet, this reduction in manual work does not coincide with a shift to more challenging and interesting tasks. Instead, robotization makes workers' tasks more routine, while diminishing the opportunities for cognitively challenging work and human contact. The adverse impact of robotization on social tasks is particularly pronounced for highly skilled and educated workers. Our study offers a unique worker-centric viewpoint on the interplay between technology and tasks, highlighting nuances that macro-level indicators overlook. As such, it sheds light on the mechanisms underpinning the impact of robotization on labor markets. |
| Keywords: | robotization, technological change, worker-level data, tasks |
| JEL: | J01 J30 J32 J81 I30 I31 M50 |
| Date: | 2023–11 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iza:izadps:dp16610&r=lab |
| By: | Rania Gihleb; Osea Giuntella; Jian Qi Tan |
| Abstract: | Unions play a crucial role in determining wages and employment outcomes. However, union bargaining power may also have important effects on non-pecuniary working conditions. We study the effects of right-to-work laws, which removed agency shop protection and weakened union powers on long hours and non-standard work schedules that may adversely affect workers' health and safety. We exploit variation in the timing of enactment across US states and compare workers in bordering counties across adopting states and states that did not adopt the laws yet. Using the stacked approach to difference-in-differences estimates proposed by Cengiz et al. (2019), we find evidence that right-to-work laws increased the share of workers working long hours by 6%, while there is little evidence of an impact on hourly wages. The effects on long hours are larger in more unionized sectors (i.e. construction, manufacturing, and transportation). While the likelihood of working non-standard hours increases for particular sectors (education and public administration), there is no evidence of a significant increase in the overall sample. |
| JEL: | I1 J08 |
| Date: | 2023–11 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:nbr:nberwo:31867&r=lab |
| By: | Clark, Andrew E. (Paris School of Economics); Kozák, Michal (University of Oslo) |
| Abstract: | The distribution of job quality across workers and the change in job quality over time can be measured by job-domain indices or single-index job-satisfaction. This paper takes both approaches to establish the evolution of job quality over a period from the mid-1990s to the mid-2010s in 13 OECD countries, using data from the three latest ISSP Work Orientation modules. The rise in job satisfaction from 1997 to 2005 has continued through 2015, despite the 2008 Great Recession. This improvement is also found in most of the job-outcome domains, despite some evidence of work intensification. Job security was the most-important job aspect every year, and the percentage of workers with secure jobs rose over time. There has been a small rise in the dispersion of job satisfaction, but the good news regarding better job quality over a 20-year period does not seem to be dampened by large changes in its inequality. |
| Keywords: | job quality, job satisfaction, ISSP |
| JEL: | J28 J3 J81 |
| Date: | 2023–11 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iza:izadps:dp16597&r=lab |
| By: | Matías Ciaschi (CEDLAS-IIE-FCE-UNLP & CONICET); Mariana Marchionni (CEDLAS-IIE-FCE-UNLP & CONICET); Guido Neidhöfer (ZEW Mannheim) |
| Abstract: | In this paper we assess intergenerational mobility in terms of education and income rank in five Latin American countries—Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Mexico, and Panama—by accounting for the education and occupation of both parents. Based on the method proposed by Lubotsky and Wittenberg (2006), we find that intergenerational persistence estimates increase by 26% to 50%when besides of the education of parents we consider also their occupation. The increase is partic-ularly strong when education is more evenly distributed in the parents’ generation. Furthermore, we evaluate the changing importance of each single proxy for parental background to explain inter-generational mobility patterns in each country and over time, and find that the relative importance of the characteristics of mothers have been increasing over the last decades, in line with rising women’s average years of education and labor market participation. Interesting heterogeneities across countries and cohorts are observed. |
| JEL: | D63 J62 O15 |
| Date: | 2023–12 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:dls:wpaper:0323&r=lab |
| By: | Benjamin Schneider; Hillary Vipond |
| Abstract: | Debates about the future of work frequently reference past instances of transformative innovation to preface analysis of how automation and artificial intelligence could reshape society and the economy. However, technological shifts in history are rarely considered in depth or used to improve predictions and planning for the coming decades. In this paper we show that a deeper understanding of history can expand knowledge of possibilities and pitfalls for employment in the future. We open by demonstrating that evidence from historical events has been used to inform responses to present-day challenges. We argue that history provides the only way to analyze the long-term impacts of technological change, and that the scale of the First Industrial Revolution may make it the only precedent for emerging transformations. Next, we present an overview of the current debates around the potential effects of impending labor-replacing innovation. We then summarize existing historical research on the causes and consequences of technological change and identify areas in which salient historical findings are overlooked. We close by proposing further research into past technological shocks that can enhance our understanding of work and employment in an automated future. |
| Keywords: | technological change, innovation, automation, future of work, technological unemployment, labor displacement |
| JEL: | J23 J64 J81 N31 N33 N71 N73 O31 O33 |
| Date: | 2023 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ces:ceswps:_10766&r=lab |
| By: | Au, Pak Hung (Hong Kong University of Science & Technology); Li, King King (Shenzhen University); Zhang, Qing (Hunan University); Zhu, Rong (Flinders University) |
| Abstract: | Freedom of choice is often thought to improve efficiency. We experimentally investigate the effect of giving workers a choice between compensation schemes with and without a CSR component (CSR/NoCSR) on labor market participation decision and work performance, compared to the alternative of exogenous assignment. Classical economic theory suggests that giving workers a choice should not reduce their performance. Our results show that there are hidden costs associated with the right of choice. When a worker is allowed to choose his or her compensation scheme, the labor market participation rate is significantly lower than when the same scheme is exogenously assigned. Work quality is also significantly lower for those who choose CSR, as well as for those who choose no CSR, than for those who are exogenously assigned to the same scheme.We propose a model of signaling with image concerns to explain why the freedom of choice may induce reduced participation and effort exertion of workers. |
| Keywords: | choice, signaling, image concerns, corporate social responsibility, labor, experiment |
| JEL: | M14 J01 C9 M52 |
| Date: | 2023–11 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iza:izadps:dp16623&r=lab |
| By: | Amalia R. Miller; Kamalini Ramdas; Alp Sungu |
| Abstract: | We measure the impact of the initial Indian national COVID-19 lockdown on digital activity using browser histories of 1, 094 individuals, spanning over 31.5 million website visits on computers and mobile devices. Reflecting the predicted increase in the value of online activity, both men and women in our sample dramatically increased their internet browsing during the lockdown. However, men’s browsing increased by significantly more, causing gender gaps overall and in key browsing categories, and in browsing on mobile devices. Our browser data showed significant relative reductions in women’s online job search, corroborated in aggregate data obtained from a major Indian online job platform, indicating potentially persistent harms to women’s employment. Consistent with increased childcare obligations driving the observed gender gaps, we find that gaps were greatest among parents. Men and women in our sample had similar browsing levels and trends pre-pandemic, which diverged during the lockdown. Our primary findings therefore shed new light on determinants of digital time use, while also highlighting the importance of considering both extensive and intensive margins of digital activity to track the digital divide. In our secondary analysis of time devoted to childcare, we find conflicting survey responses between fathers (who report an increase relative to mothers) and mothers (who report no such increase). While our data cannot directly resolve this conflict, they do show fathers having larger increases in time spent online, with no relative increase in childcare-related browsing. This secondary result demonstrates the value of complementing survey data with digital trace data. |
| JEL: | I18 J13 J16 J22 J24 K39 O15 O33 |
| Date: | 2023–11 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:nbr:nberwo:31919&r=lab |
| By: | Schirner, Sebastian; Hessami, Zohal |
| JEL: | D72 J15 H70 F22 |
| Date: | 2023 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:vfsc23:277670&r=lab |
| By: | Noemí Katzkowicz; Victor Lavy; Martina Querejeta; Tatiana Rosá |
| Abstract: | Poor post-secondary education infrastructure and opportunities partly explain the low higher education rates in developing countries. This paper estimates the effect of a program that improved post-secondary education infrastructure by building many university campuses across Uruguay. Leveraging temporal and geographic variation in program implementation, we use a two-way fixed effect design and comprehensive administrative records to assess the program’s causal impact. By lowering the distance to a university campus, the program successfully increased university enrollment, particularly of less privileged students who are the first in their families to attend a university. The program impacted students from localities up to 30 kilometers from the new campus, reducing spatial inequality. Importantly, this expansion did not lower university completion rates. Furthermore, the program increased high school attendance and completion rates and the proportion of educated workers in the affected localities. |
| JEL: | D63 I23 I28 J16 |
| Date: | 2023–11 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:nbr:nberwo:31906&r=lab |
| By: | Osman, Adam (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign); Speer, Jamin D. (University of Memphis); Weaver, Andrew (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) |
| Abstract: | We study discrimination in hiring and its associated outcomes for the discriminators using a unique survey of Egyptian businesses. Discrimination against women is widespread and overt: about half (51%) of establishments directly admit that they prefer to hire men. The share varies widely across industries, from 60% in retail to only 16% in IT. Using a list randomization technique, we can rule out that discrimination against women is heavily stigmatized in Egypt, meaning that establishments are willing to admit it openly. We then provide novel suggestive evidence showing that discriminating against women is associated the employment of lower-quality workers. We also provide guidance on the use of the list randomization technique and how to interpret it in settings with limited stigma. |
| Keywords: | discrimination, list randomization, Egypt |
| JEL: | J16 J71 C83 O12 |
| Date: | 2023–11 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iza:izadps:dp16598&r=lab |
| By: | Angus Holford; Sonkurt Sen |
| Abstract: | We study the impact of racial representation among academic staff on university students’ academic and labor market outcomes. We use administrative data on the universe of staff and students at all UK universities, linked to representative survey data on students’ post-graduation outcomes, exploiting idiosyncratic variation (conditional on a rich set of fixed effects and observable student, staff, and university-department level characteristics) in the proportion of racial minority academic staff to whom students are exposed. We find that own-race representation benefits the academic outcomes of South Asian students but not Black students, and no beneficial impacts of own-race representation on the labor market outcomes of either group. However, we do find that same race representation among academic staff significantly increases progression of Black and South Asian students to graduate study, suggesting that there may be benefits of same-race representation operating through provision of role models or domain-specific advice and guidance. |
| Keywords: | minorities, representation, returns to education, labor market outcomes |
| JEL: | I23 I26 J15 J24 |
| Date: | 2023–11 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:bon:boncrc:crctr224_2023_471&r=lab |
| By: | Alfonso Expósito ((University of Málaga, Spain). ORCID number: 0000-0002-9248-4879); Juan A. Amparo Sanchis-Llopis ((University of Valencia and ERICES, Spain). ORCID number: 0000-0002-0872-7859); Juan A. Juan A. Sanchis-Llopis ((University of Valencia and ERICES, Spain). ORCID number: 0000-0001-9664-4668) |
| Abstract: | This study explores whether there are significant differences between female- and male-led businesses in terms of the performance results they obtain from innovating. We use a sample of 1, 376 Spanish small and medium enterprises (SMEs) to analyze the impact of entrepreneur gender on business performance considering the mediating effect of innovations, that is, the possibility that gender indirectly influences business performance by affecting the introduction of innovations. Using econometric techniques, we estimate discrete choice models to explore the relationship among gender, innovations and business’ performance. Our analysis is multidimensional in that we consider two types of performance indicators, financial and operational, and three types of innovations: product, process and organisational innovations. Our empirical findings show that, after controlling for other entrepreneurial and business characteristics, menled SMEs are more likely to obtain better performance from their innovations, and in particular, from their higher propensity to introduce process innovations, as compared to women-led SMEs. We extend existing empirical literature in the gender and entrepreneur research fields regarding the role of entrepreneur gender in the innovation-performance relationship, and contribute to the understanding of the role of gender in SMEs performance. Our study suggests the need to incorporate a gender perspective in those policies dealing with enhancing SMEs innovativeness and performance. |
| Keywords: | Gender of entrepreneur; small and medium-enterprises; innovations; financial performance; operational performance; bivariate probit model. |
| JEL: | C35 J16 F14 M21 |
| Date: | 2023–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:eec:wpaper:2308&r=lab |
| By: | Beatriz Muriel Hernández (Executive Director and Senior Principal Researcher of INESAD); Sergio Mansilla (Junior Researcher of INESAD) |
| Abstract: | This paper presents an empirical study of how inclusive was the extraordinary growth experienced by Bolivia between 2006 and 2019, in terms of decent job generation in urban areas and by gender. For this, we use the Ali and Son (2007) concentration curve of opportunities and approach the jobs with five rates proposed by Muriel (2014, 2019, 2020a, 2020b): i.e. job stability, Christmas wage bonus tenure, social protection access, sufficient labour income and membership of a labour association. The results show that growth was inclusive between 2006 and 2011; but it was not in further periods. Even, the percentage of workers with Christmas wage bonus, sufficient labor income and with affiliation to some labor association were lower in 2019 compared to 2006. In terms of gender gaps, the one associated with sufficient labor income stands out, but the main problems lie in the inequities of access to opportunities within the same female population. |
| Keywords: | Decent Jobs, Inclusive Growth, Gender. |
| JEL: | D63 J16 J29 J39 J83 |
| Date: | 2023–11 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:adv:wpaper:202304&r=lab |