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on Intellectual Property Rights |
| By: | Antonin Bergeaud; Ruveyda Nur Gozen; John Van Reenen |
| Abstract: | We introduce a methodology to measure cross-country trends in innovation capability - “technological trajectories” and implement this on a new rich dataset covering patents between 1836 and 2016 across multiple countries. Intuitively, trajectories are revealed by a country’s sustained increases in patenting across multiple patent offices. We first describe the data patterns, showing the relative decline of the UK, and the rise first of the US and Germany, and then later of Japan and China. We then econometrically estimate trajectories on (i) the post-1902 period for France, Germany, Japan, the UK and US, and (ii) the post-1960 period for a wider sample of 40 countries. Our trajectories are strongly positively correlated with Total Factor Productivity growth, and also (but less strongly) associated with the growth of labour productivity and capital intensity. We show that future trajectories are predicted by a country’s initial levels of R&D, education and defence spending, classic drivers of innovation in modern growth theory. |
| JEL: | O31 O33 O34 |
| Date: | 2026–01 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:nbr:nberwo:34760 |
| By: | Antonin Bergeaud; Julia Schmidt; Riccardo Zago |
| Abstract: | Technology standards are defined by national and international organizations to select and disseminate the best technologies and practices. Using a measure of patent quality and a novel measure of the semantic proximity between patents and standards documents, this paper exploits the standardization process to disentangle the respective contributions of innovation and diffusion to firm value. Producing a patent increases a firm’s book value by 0.8% over the first eight years following the patent grant. However, this value deteriorates when the patent is not incorporated into a standard and diffused. In contrast, only firms whose patent specifications are included in a standard experience an additional increase in firm value of about 0.4% thereafter. Similar results are obtained when examining firms’ market-value and net worth. Finally, by studying firm-level productivity and markups, we show that the value gains associated with innovation stem from productivity improvements, whereas those associated with diffusion arise from rent extraction. |
| Keywords: | Standardization, Patents, Innovation, Firm Value |
| JEL: | G30 O31 O33 |
| Date: | 2026 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:bfr:banfra:1031 |
| By: | Kyle Higham (Motu Economic and Public Policy Research); Hannah Kotula (Motu Economic and Public Policy Research); Emma Scharfmann (University of California, Berkeley); Steve Gong (Google); Gaétan de Rassenfosse (Ecole polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne) |
| Abstract: | We present a curated dataset of about 850, 000 citations extracted from Office Actions issued by examiners at the United States Patent and Trademark Office. These references, historically underused due to accessibility challenges, provide a granular view into the patent examination process and complement traditional front-page citation data. We classify each citation into one of 14 categories and focus on the 265, 000 references to scientific literature, which we parse, clean, and disambiguate using machine learning and external bibliographic services. To enhance reusability, disambiguated records are linked to OpenAlex, a comprehensive research metadata platform. The dataset enables new research on examiner behavior, science–technology linkages, and the construction of citation-based metrics. All data and code are openly available to facilitate reuse across disciplines. |
| Keywords: | citation; patent; office actions; open data; non-patent literature; NPL |
| JEL: | O34 K29 D83 C81 |
| Date: | 2026–02 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iip:wpaper:31 |
| By: | Samia Moumade (CERGAM - Centre d'Études et de Recherche en Gestion d'Aix-Marseille - AMU - Aix Marseille Université - UTLN - Université de Toulon); Aurélie Hemonnet-Goujot (CERGAM - Centre d'Études et de Recherche en Gestion d'Aix-Marseille - AMU - Aix Marseille Université - UTLN - Université de Toulon, AMU IAE - Institut d'Administration des Entreprises (IAE) - Aix-en-Provence - AMU - Aix Marseille Université); Pierre Valette-Florence (UGA - Université Grenoble Alpes) |
| Abstract: | This study examines how brand legitimacy impacts consumer-brand relationships in brand activism campaigns. While prior research shows consumers align with brands reflecting their values, this study addresses how legitimacy-moral, pragmatic, and cognitive-affects this dynamic. Using congruence theory, it explores (1) the multidimensional effects of brand legitimacy on consumer evaluations and (2) the mediating roles of self-congruity, social involvement, and consumer-cause engagement. Two experiments with 1, 200 participants focused on campaigns against social discrimination. Results reveal pragmatic legitimacy boosts purchase intentions and willingness to pay a premium, while moral legitimacy enhances engagement. Self-congruity, consumer-cause engagement, and social involvement mediate effects, and controversy positively moderates outcomes. These findings suggest brands can benefit by strategically aligning brand legitimacy dimensions and levels of congruence in brand activism campaigns. |
| Keywords: | brand legitimacy, congruence theory, brand activism |
| Date: | 2025–05–25 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:journl:hal-05477859 |
| By: | Samia Moumade (CERGAM - Centre d'Études et de Recherche en Gestion d'Aix-Marseille - AMU - Aix Marseille Université - UTLN - Université de Toulon); Aurélie Hemonnet-Goujot (CERGAM - Centre d'Études et de Recherche en Gestion d'Aix-Marseille - AMU - Aix Marseille Université - UTLN - Université de Toulon, AMU IAE - Institut d'Administration des Entreprises (IAE) - Aix-en-Provence - AMU - Aix Marseille Université); Pierre Valette-Florence (CERAG - Centre d'études et de recherches appliquées à la gestion - UGA - Université Grenoble Alpes) |
| Abstract: | This study explores how brand legitimacy influences the consumer-brand relationship within the context of brand activism campaigns. Prior research suggests that consumers align with brands that reflect their values and political orientations. Still, gaps remain in understanding how brand legitimacy—encompassing moral, pragmatic, and cognitive dimensions—affects this relationship, under varying levels of controversy. Grounded in congruence theory, the research examines (1) how the multidimensional nature of brand legitimacy impacts consumer evaluations and (2) how factors such as self-congruity, social involvement, and consumer-cause engagement mediate or moderate these effects. Two experiments with 1, 200 US-based participants and real brand stimuli focused on brand activism campaigns against social discrimination. Findings reveal that brand legitimacy positively influences the consumer-brand relationship. Pragmatic legitimacy drives purchase intentions and willingness to pay a premium, while moral legitimacy fosters consumer-brand engagement. Self-congruity and consumer-cause involvement act as mediators, whereas controversy moderates brand trust. These insights suggest that strategically navigating brand legitimacy dimensions and congruence levels can yield long-term benefits for brands engaging in activism. |
| Abstract: | Cette étude explore comment la légitimité de la marque et la congruence influencent la relation consommateur-marque dans le contexte des campagnes d'activisme de marque. Des recherches antérieures suggèrent que les consommateurs s'alignent avec les marques qui reflètent leurs valeurs et leurs orientations politiques, mais il reste des lacunes dans la compréhension de l'impact de la légitimité de la marque-incluant les dimensions morale, pragmatique et cognitive-sur cette relation, en fonction de différents niveaux de controverse. Basée sur la théorie de la congruence, la recherche examine (1) comment la nature multidimensionnelle de la légitimité de la marque influence les évaluations des consommateurs et (2) comment des facteurs tels que la congruence de soi, l'implication sociale et l'engagement consommateur-cause agissent comme médiateurs ou modérateurs de ces effets. Deux expérimentations menées auprès de 1 200 participants américains avec des stimuli de marques réelles se sont concentrées sur des campagnes d'activisme de marque contre la discrimination sociale. Les résultats révèlent que la légitimité de la marque influence positivement la relation consommateur-marque. La légitimité pragmatique stimule les intentions d'achat et la volonté de payer une prime, tandis que la légitimité morale favorise l'engagement consommateur-marque. La congruence de soi et l'engagement consommateur-cause agissent comme médiateurs, tandis que la controverse modère la confiance envers la marque. Ces conclusions suggèrent que naviguer stratégiquement entre les dimensions de la légitimité de la marque et les niveaux de congruence peut générer des bénéfices à long terme pour les marques engagées dans l'activisme. |
| Keywords: | consumer-brand relationship, congruence theory, brand legitimacy, théorie de la congruence brand activism, relation consommateur-marque, légitimité de la marque, Activisme de marque |
| Date: | 2025–05–14 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:journl:hal-05477845 |