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on Health Economics |
| By: | Bergvall, Sanna (Department of Economics, School of Business, Economics and Law, Göteborg University); Fernström, Clara (Stockholm Business School, Stockholm University); Ranehill, Eva (Department of Economics, School of Business, Economics and Law, Göteborg University); Sandberg, Anna (Swedish Institute for Social Research, Stockholm University) |
| Abstract: | Recent self-reported and cross-sectional survey evidence documents high levels of mental health problems among PhD students. We study the impact of PhD studies on mental health care uptake using Swedish administrative records of prescriptions for psychiatric medication for the full population of PhD students. First, we provide descriptive evidence that PhD students collect psychiatric medication at a higher rate than a matched sample of individuals holding a master’s degree, but at a lower rate than a matched sample from the general population. Second, we implement an event study analysis and document that, in the years preceding their PhD studies, prospective students collect psychiatric medication at a rate similar to that of a matched sample of individuals holding a master’s degree. However, following the start of PhD studies, the use of psychiatric medication among PhD students increasessubstantially. This upward trend continues throughout the course of PhD studies, with estimates showing a 40 percent increase by the fifth year compared to pre-PhD levels. After the fifth year, which represents the average duration of PhD studies in our sample, we observe a notable decrease in the utilization of psychiatric medication. |
| Keywords: | Mental health; PhD studies; psychiatric medication |
| JEL: | I10 I23 |
| Date: | 2024–09–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hhs:gunwpe:0846 |
| By: | Picchio, Matteo; van Ours, Jan C. |
| Abstract: | High temperatures can have a negative effect on workplace safety for a variety of reasons. Discomfort and reduced concentration caused by heat can lead to workers making mistakes and injuring themselves. Discomfort can also be an incentive for workers to report an injury that they would not have reported in the absence of heat. We investigate how temperature affects injuries of professional tennis players in outdoor singles matches. We find that for men injury rates increase with ambient temperatures. For women, there is no effect of high temperatures on injuries. Among male tennis players, there is some heterogeneity in the temperature effects, which seem to be influenced by incentives. Specifically, when a male player is losing at the beginning of a crucial (second) fourth set in (best-of-three) best-of-five matches, the temperature effect is much larger than when he is winning. In best-offive matches, which are more exhausting, this effect is age-dependent and stronger for older players. |
| Keywords: | Climate change, temperatures, tennis, injuries, health |
| JEL: | J24 J81 Q51 Q54 |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:glodps:1487 |
| By: | Roeckert, Julian; Krähnert, Kati; Hoffmann, Roman |
| Abstract: | This study examines the impact of extreme weather events on violence against children inflicted by adult household members. Our focus is on Mongolia, where winter disasters cause high livestock mortality that exert economic stress on pastoralist households. The analysis builds on three cross-sectional Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys. The identification strategy utilizes spatial variation in the intensity of three winter disasters. Exposure to extreme winter conditions significantly increases the probability of children from pastoralist households to become victim of psychological and physical violence. Increased alcohol consumption, shifts in attitudes toward male dominance, and reduced life satisfaction among adults are likely mechanisms. |
| Abstract: | Diese Studie untersucht die Auswirkungen extremer Wetterereignisse auf Gewalt gegen Kinder durch erwachsene Haushaltsmitglieder. Unser Fokus liegt auf der Mongolei, wo extreme Wetterbedingungen im Winter eine hohe Viehsterblichkeit verursachen, die die Existenz von Viehhaltern bedrohen. Die Analyse basiert auf drei Querschnittserhebungen von Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys. Die Identifikationsstrategie nutzt die räumliche Variation in der Intensität dreier extremer Winterereignisse. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass extreme Winterbedingungen systematisch die Wahrscheinlichkeit erhöhen, dass Kinder aus Viehhalter-Haushalten Opfer von psychischer und physischer Gewalt werden. Erhöhter Alkoholkonsum, veränderte Einstellungen gegenüber männlicher Dominanz und eine geringere Lebenszufriedenheit unter Erwachsenen sind wahrscheinliche Mechanismen für den Anstieg der Gewalt.Diese Studie untersucht die Auswirkungen extremer Wetterereignisse auf Gewalt gegen Kinder durch erwachsene Haushaltsmitglieder. Unser Fokus liegt auf der Mongolei, wo extreme Wetterbedingungen im Winter eine hohe Viehsterblichkeit verursachen, die die Existenz von Viehhaltern bedrohen. Die Analyse basiert auf drei Querschnittserhebungen von Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys. Die Identifikationsstrategie nutzt die räumliche Variation in der Intensität dreier extremer Winterereignisse. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass extreme Winterbedingungen systematisch die Wahrscheinlichkeit erhöhen, dass Kinder aus Viehhalter-Haushalten Opfer von psychischer und physischer Gewalt werden. Erhöhter Alkoholkonsum, veränderte Einstellungen gegenüber männlicher Dominanz und eine geringere Lebenszufriedenheit unter Erwachsenen sind wahrscheinliche Mechanismen für den Anstieg der Gewalt. |
| Keywords: | Extreme weather events, violence against children (VAC) |
| JEL: | I31 J12 J13 Q12 Q54 |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:rwirep:302182 |
| By: | Bergvall, Sanna (Department of Economics, School of Business, Economics and Law, Göteborg University); Rodriguez-Planas, Nuria (Queens College) |
| Abstract: | Most empirical studies indicate that becoming a mother is an augmenting factor for the perpetration of intimate partner violence (IPV). Using rich population-wide hospital records data from Sweden, we conduct a stacked DiD analysis comparing the paths of women two years before and after the birth of their first child with same-age women who are several quarters older when giving birth to their first child and find that, in contrast to the consensus view, violence sharply decreases with pregnancy and motherhood. This decline has both a short-term and longer-term component, with the temporary decline in IPV covering most of the pregnancy until the child is 6 months old, mimicking a temporary decrease in hospital visits for alcohol abuse by the children’s fathers. The more persistent decline is riven by women who leave the relationship after the birth of the child. Our evidence is not supportive of alternative echanisms including suspicious hospitalizations, an overall reduction in hospital visits or selection in seeking medical care, mothers’ added value as the main nurturer, or mothers’ drop in relative earnings within the household. Our findings suggest the need to push for public health awareness campaigns underscoring the risk of victimization associated with substance abuse and to also provide women with more support to identify and leave a violent relationship. |
| Keywords: | motherhood; stacked difference-in-differences model; event study; individual fixed effects; administrative longitudinal records data; population-wide estimates |
| JEL: | J12 J13 |
| Date: | 2024–09–03 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hhs:gunwpe:0844 |
| By: | Bhan, Prateek Chandra; Vornberger, Judith; Wen, Jinglin |
| Abstract: | Despite increasing mental health problems and an existing care gap among university students, cost-effective solutions to bridge this gap are still lacking. Using a reflection intervention, we conduct a randomized controlled trial with undergraduate students in Germany. As part of a thought experiment, the treatment group reflected for ten minutes on questions related to stressors and their remedies. Combining survey and administrative data we find a significant improvement in students' mindful behavior, mental health and well-being as well as perseverance in performance. Our results show the self-empowering potential of a low-cost soft-touch intervention in students to aid their mindful behavior, mental health and well-being as well as performance and thus demonstrate one way universities as institutions can provide support. |
| Keywords: | Mental health, students, experiment, stress, coping strategy, Germany |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:cexwps:301857 |
| By: | Brehm, Johannes; Gruhl, Henri; Kottmann, Robin; Schmitz, Laura |
| Abstract: | Does exposure to air pollution impact mental health? This paper uses administrative health insurance data to estimate the long-term cumulative effects of air pollution exposure on mental health outcomes. For identification, we exploit the staggered introduction of Low Emission Zones (LEZs) across German cities, which restrict access for emission-intensive vehicles. We find that LEZs reduce various air pollutants and improve the population's mental health measured by depression and anxiety diagnoses, prescriptions, and specialist visits. The health benefits emerge gradually, with younger individuals benefiting the most. Our findings suggest substantial mental health co-benefits and avoided health costs from improved air quality |
| Abstract: | Wie wirkt sich Luftverschmutzung auf die psychische Gesundheit aus? In dieser Studie nutzen wir administrative Krankenversicherungsdaten, um die langfristigen kumulativen Auswirkungen von Verbesserungen der Luftqualität auf die psychische Gesundheit zu schätzen. Zur Identifizierung nutzen wir die gestaffelte Einführung von Umweltzonen in deutschen Städten, die den Zugang für emissionsintensive Fahrzeuge beschränken. Unsere Analysen ergeben, dass Umweltzonen die Konzentration von Luftschadstoffen reduzieren und die psychische Gesundheit der Bevölkerung verbessern, gemessen an Depressions- und Angstdiagnosen, Verschreibungen und Facharztbesuchen. Die gesundheitlichen Effekte stellen sich erst 2-4 Jahre nach der Einführung der Umweltzonen ein, wobei jüngere Menschen am meisten davon profitieren. Unsere Ergebnisse deuten auf einen erheblichen Zusatznutzen für die psychische Gesundheit und auf vermiedene Gesundheitskosten aufgrund der verbesserten Luftqualität hin. |
| Keywords: | Mental health, air pollution, low emission zones |
| JEL: | I18 Q53 Q58 |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:rwirep:302183 |
| By: | Costa-Font, Joan (London School of Economics); Cowell, Frank A. (London School of Economics) |
| Abstract: | An individual's inequality aversion (IA) is a central preference parameter that captures the welfare sacrifice from exposure to inequality. However, it is far from trivial how to best elicit IA estimates. Also, little is known about the behavioural determinants of IA and how they differ across domains such as income and health. Using representative surveys from England, this paper elicits comparable estimates of IA in the health and income domains using two alternative elicitation techniques: a direct trade-off and an indirect "imaginary-grandchild" approach that results from the choices between hypothetical lotteries. We make three distinct contributions to the literature. First, we show that IA systematically differs between income and health domains. Average estimates are around 0.8 for income IA and range from 0.8 to 1.5 for health IA. Second, we find that risk aversion and locus of control are central determinants of IA in both income and health domains. Finally, we present evidence suggesting that the distribution and comparison of IA vary depending on the elicitation method employed. |
| Keywords: | inequality aversion, income inequality aversion, health inequality aversion, imaginary grandchild, inequality and efficiency trade-offs, risk attitudes, locus of control |
| JEL: | H1 I18 |
| Date: | 2024–07 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iza:izadps:dp17188 |
| By: | Xhiselda Demaj (Department of Economics, Ca’ Foscari University of Venice) |
| Abstract: | School-based policies may influence children's non-cognitive development, a strong predictor of future life outcomes. This article investigates the short-run impact of the Universal Infant Free School Meal Policy on children's non-cognitive skills relying on a sample of children aged five from the UK Household Longitudinal Study (UKHLS). To identify the causal effect of the policy, we use a difference-in-difference strategy by exploiting exogenous variations in the timing and location of switching from a means-tested to a universal provision of free school lunches. Our results show that exposure to universal free school lunches improves children's Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) by 0.21 standard deviation points. The effect seems to be driven by pupils living in medium-income households, for whom the policy change seems more relevant. A potential explanatory mechanism has to do with the reduction in social stigma associated with the transition from means-tested to universally provided school lunches. |
| Keywords: | non-cognitive development, school meals, universalism |
| JEL: | H42 I24 I28 |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ven:wpaper:2024:11 |
| By: | Marie Blaise; Sandrine Juin; Hélène Le Forner; Quitterie Roquebert |
| Abstract: | Despite a shift towards more balanced gender roles, women continue to carry out the bulk of domestic work at home. At the same time, they face competing demands from outside the household. This paper investigates the gendered effect of providing care to an older parent outside the household on individuals’ time allocation within couples. We focus on time spent on housework, distinguishing between household chores and more enjoyable tasks and on leisure with and without the partner. Data are drawn from the latest French Time-Use Survey (Enquête Emploi Du Temps, 2010). To tackle endogeneity issues, we instrument informal care by having at least one parent alive. Our results differ according to gender. When providing care, women tend to spend less time on housework. Irrespective of their own caregiving status, they spend more time on household chores when their male partners care for an older parent. In contrast, men’s time allocation within the household appears to be less impacted by any informal care provision. |
| Keywords: | Time allocation; Informal Care; Leisure; Housework; Gender |
| Date: | 2024–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:irs:cepswp:2024-05 |
| By: | Bharti Nandwani (Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research); Manisha Jain (Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research) |
| Abstract: | This paper examines the impact of India's Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY), a clean cooking policy that offered free Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) connections to women from economically and socially disadvantaged households, on their well-being. Exploiting the targeted introduction of the policy; and using a large nationally representative data in a difference-in-difference framework, we show that the policy has a positive impact on women's health, education and employment, although the effects on education and employment outcomes are relatively modest. Further, we show that the beneficiary women have higher autonomy post-policy. We also document that in districts with initially lower levels of clean energy access, improvements in employment, education, and health outcomes are lower, but improvements in women's agency measures are higher. Our findings suggest that while the effect on women's autonomy is primarily driven by registering connections in their name, improvements in health, education and employment are due to increased usage of LPG as the main cooking fuel. Overall, these findings provide evidence that a gender-responsive policy like PMUY can effectively enhance access to clean cooking fuel and subsequently improve women's socio-economic outcomes through both connections and consumption channels. |
| Keywords: | Clean cooking fuel, energy access, women health, women agency, employment, gender-responsive policy |
| JEL: | Q48 I38 H42 |
| Date: | 2024–08 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ind:igiwpp:2024-017 |
| By: | Ibrahim J. Tawbe (Université de Bretagne occidentale, F-29000 Quimper, France); Jihad Elnaboulsi (Université de Franche-Comté, CRESE, UR3190, F-25000 Besançon, France) |
| Abstract: | This study seeks to investigate the impact of maternal residential proximity to toxic pollutant sites on birth weight using data from the European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (E-PRTR) and the Etude Longitudinale Française depuis l’Enfance (ELFE) cohort. In line with the literature, we categorized the distance between the mother’s residence during gestation and the E-PRTR sites into three ranges: 0-3 km, 3.1- 5 km, and 5.1-10 km. Using linear regression model, we did not find statistically significant associations between proximity to E-PRTR sites and birth weight. However, upon further examination of specific industrial sectors, we observed that mining sites had a detrimental effect on birth weight for infants whose mothers resided within distances of 0-3 km and 3.1-5 km compared to those between 5.1 and 10 km from these sites. Specifically, residing within 0-3 km and 3.1-5 km of a mineral industry resulted in reduced birth weight compared to other distances, with respective decreases of 68 and 56 grams. |
| Keywords: | air pollution, birth weight, polluting sites, maternal exposure, Elfe cohort, Disclosure programs, E-PRTR. |
| JEL: | Q5 G53 I1 I18 K3 |
| Date: | 2024–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:crb:wpaper:2024-15 |
| By: | Alyssa Carlson (Department of Economics, University of Missouri); Anastasia Semykina (Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology) |
| Abstract: | We present a general framework for nonlinear dynamic panel data models subject to missing outcomes due to endogenous attrition. We consider two cases of attrition. First, ignorable attrition where the distribution of the outcome does not depend on missingness conditional on the unobserved heterogeneity. Second, non-ignorable attrition where the conditional distribution of the outcome does depend on attrition. In either case, a major challenge posed by the dynamic specification is the inherent correlation between the lagged dependent variable and unobserved individual heterogeneity. Our key assumption is that the distribution of the unobserved heterogeneity does not depend on attrition conditional on observed covariates and initial condition. The resulting estimator is a joint MLE that accommodates a dynamic specification, correlated unobserved heterogeneity, and endogenous attrition. We discuss the derivation and estimation of the average partial effects within this framework and provide examples for the binary response, ordinal response, and corner solution cases. Finite sample properties are studied using Monte Carlo simulations. As an empirical application, the proposed method is applied to estimating a dynamic health model for older women. |
| Keywords: | attrition, dynamic, nonlinear, panel data, correlated random effects |
| JEL: | C23 C24 C25 |
| Date: | 2024–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:umc:wpaper:2408 |
| By: | Said Akki (Laboratory of Industrial Technologies and Services, EST, University Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah, Fez, Morocco); Abderrahmane Ouddasser (Laboratory of Industrial Technologies and Services, EST, University Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah, Fez, Morocco) |
| Abstract: | This article explores the impacts of digital transformation (DT) on occupational health and safety (OHS), highlighting the challenges and opportunities for OHS associated with new forms of work organization "New way of work", notably teleworking, this mode of work offering on the one hand a certain flexibility to employees, can also, on the other hand, generate risks to their safety, physical and mental health. However, the article also assesses EU OHS legislation relating to the use of artificial intelligence (AI) and robotization in the work context, and highlights the need for concrete actions to ensure a safe and healthy working environment in the digital age, such as establishing an adequate legal framework for the digital "right to disconnect", investing in training and skills development, promoting a culture of prevention, etc. As a result, this article also highlights the importance of supporting change in the context of digital work in the workplace. Indeed, the implementation of a prevention strategy within organizations is fundamental to the optimal management of OHS. This strategy involves raising workers' awareness of emerging psychosocial and ergonomic risks, adequate safety measures and good practice in the use of digital tools. However, the article also raises ethical concerns, concerning data confidentiality, privacy and the difficulties of automated decision-making, particularly with the implementation of AI and its increasing use in work supervision and management. |
| Abstract: | Cet article explore les impacts de la transformation numérique (TN) sur la santé et la sécurité au travail (SST), mettant en évidence les défis et les opportunités pour la SST associés aux nouvelles formes d'organisation du travail « New way of work », notamment le télétravail, ce mode de travail offrant d'une part une certaine flexibilité aux employés, peut également, d'autre part engendrer des risques pour leur sécurité, leur santé physique et mentale. Toutefois, l'article évalue également la législation de l'Union Européenne en matière de SST relative à l'utilisation de l'intelligence artificielle (IA) et de la robotisation dans le contexte du travail, il souligne la nécessité d'actions concrètes pour garantir un environnement de travail sain et sécurisé à l'ère numérique, telles que l'instauration d'un cadre juridique adéquat encadrant le "droit à la déconnexion" numérique, l'investissement dans la formation et le développement des compétences , la promotion d'une culture de prévention, etc. Par conséquent, le présent article met également en exergue l'importance d'un accompagnement du changement dans le contexte de la TN au milieu du travail. En effet, la mise en place d'une stratégie de prévention au sein des organisations s'avère fondamentale pour une gestion optimale de la SST, cette stratégie implique la sensibilisation des travailleurs aux risques psychosociaux et ergonomiques émergents, aux mesures de sécurité adéquates et aux bonnes pratiques d'utilisation des outils numériques. Cependant, l'article soulève également des préoccupations d'ordre éthique, concernant la confidentialité des données, le respect de la vie privée et les difficultés relatives à la prise de décisions automatisées, particulièrement avec l'implémentation de l'IA et son utilisation croissante dans la supervision et le pilotage du travail. |
| Keywords: | Digital transformation (DT) - Occupational health and safety (OHS) - Artificial intelligence (AI) - Risks – legislation EU, Transformation numérique (TN) -Santé et sécurité au travail (SST) -Intelligence artificielle (IA) -Risques -législations UE Classification JEL J24 -K32 -M14 Digital transformation (DT) -Occupational health and safety (OHS) -Artificial intelligence (AI) -Risks -legislation EU JEL Classification J24 -K32 -M14 |
| Date: | 2024–07–28 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:journl:hal-04667985 |
| By: | Greyling, Talita; Rossouw, Stephanié |
| Abstract: | The COVID-19 pandemic is an example of an immense global failure to curb the spread of a pathogen and save lives. To indirectly protect people against a deadly virus, a population needs to achieve herd immunity, which is attained either through vaccination or prior infection. However, achieving herd immunity by vaccination is preferable as it limits the health risks of disease. As the coronavirus mutated, vaccination estimates for achieving herd immunity went from 70% to 90%. In this study, we investigate the order of the importance of the variables to identify those factors that contribute most to achieving high vaccination rates. Secondly, we consider if subjective measures, including the level of happiness and different collective emotions of populations, contribute to higher vaccine uptake. We employ an XGBoost machine learning model (and, as robustness tests, Random Forest and Decision Tree models) to train our data. Our target output variable is the number of people vaccinated as a percentage of the population. We consider two thresholds of our output variable, the first at 70% of a country's population, corresponding to the initial suggestions to achieve herd immunity, and the second with a threshold of 90%, suggested later due to the highly infectious virus. We use a dataset that includes ten countries in the Northern and Southern Hemisphere and variables related to COVID-19, vaccines, country characteristics and the level of happiness and collective emotions within countries. The most important variables listed in reaching the 70% and 90% thresholds are similar. These include the implemented vaccination policy, international travel controls, the percentage of the population in rural areas, the average temperature, and the happiness levels within countries. It is remarkable how the importance of subjective measures of people's emotions and moods play a role in attaining higher vaccination levels. As the vaccine threshold increases, the importance of subjective well-being variables rises. Therefore, not only the implemented policies and country characteristics but also the happiness levels and emotions play a role in compliance and achieving higher vaccination thresholds. Our results provide actionable policy insights to increase vaccination rates. Additionally, we highlight the importance of subjective measures such as happiness and collective emotions to increase vaccination rates and assist governments to be better prepared for the next global pandemic. |
| Keywords: | COVID-19, vaccine, happiness, emotions, supervised machine learning |
| JEL: | C55 I10 I31 H12 N40 |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:glodps:1482 |
| By: | Despina Gavresi (DEM, University of Luxembourg); Anastasia Litina (Department of Economics, University of Macedonia); George Mavropoulos (Department of Economics, University of Macedonia); Sofia Tsitou (Department of Economics, University of Ioannina) |
| Abstract: | This paper explores the interplay between social norms i.e., attitudes on gender equality and strength of family ties, and the spread of COVID-19. To undertake our analysis we combine sub-national (Nuts 1 regions) data for the social norms from the Integrated Values Survey (IVS) from 1981 to 2019 and the spread of COVID-19 measured by the excess mortality rate in Nuts 1 European regions in 2020 and 2021. Exploiting regional variation, we empirically establish that in regions with norms favoring gender equality, the excess mortality associated with the spread of COVID-19 is lower. Our hypothesized underlying mechanism is that women respect social distancing more, thereby in a country where women enjoy more respect, the influence more strongly their families to do the same thus diminishing the virus diffusion. Concerning the strength of family times, we find that regions with stronger family ties are associated with a higher COVID-19 excess mortality rate, hinting to the higher involvement of the elderly in family affairs. |
| Keywords: | COVID-19, Women Equality, Family Ties, Social Norms, Culture |
| JEL: | O4 Z12 |
| Date: | 2024–06 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:mcd:mcddps:2024_06 |
| By: | Maia, Alexandre Gori; Lu, Yao |
| Abstract: | We investigate differences in earnings penalties associated with working from home (WFH) between groups of gender and race before and during the COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil. Using a large and nationally representative longitudinal dataset, we show that the earnings penalty associated with WFH diminished for White and Black men during the pandemic while remaining high for White and Black women. We further examine three mechanisms explaining these changes: i) the equilibrium between supply and demand, as more women than men transitioned to WFH during the pandemic; ii) labor productivity, as the effective working hours of Black women were more affected by WFH; and ii) visibility and promotion, as White women became less likely than White men to be promoted when WFH during the pandemic. |
| Keywords: | Gender and race disparities;Telework;remote work;Labor market inequalities;Wage penalty |
| JEL: | J16 J21 J31 |
| Date: | 2024–08 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:idb:brikps:13674 |