| Abstract: |
We study the evolution of belief systems that suppress productive effort.
These include concerns about the envy of others, beliefs in the importance of
luck for success, disdain for competitive effort, and traditional beliefs in
witchcraft. We show that such demotivating beliefs can evolve when
interactions are zero-sum in nature, i.e., gains for one individual tend to
come at the expense of others. Within a population, our model predicts a
divergence between material and subjective payoffs, with material welfare
being hump-shaped and subjective well-being being decreasing in demotivating
beliefs. Across societies, our model predicts a positive relationship between
zero-sum thinking and demotivating beliefs and a negative relationship between
zero-sum thinking (or demotivating beliefs) and both material welfare and
subjective well-being. We test the model’s predictions using data from two
samples in the Democratic Republic of Congo and from the World Values Survey.
In the DRC, we find a positive relationship between zero-sum thinking and the
presence of demotivating beliefs, such as concerns about envy and beliefs in
witchcraft. Globally, zero-sum thinking is associated with skepticism about
the importance of hard work for success, lower income, less educational
attainment, less financial security, and lower life satisfaction. Comparing
individuals in the same zero-sum environment, we observe the divergence
between material outcomes and subjective well-being predicted by our model. |