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on Gender |
| By: | Timko, Krisztina |
| Abstract: | We study gender differences in the behavior, communication, and effectiveness of randomly selected leaders in a laboratory experiment using the turnaround game. Leaders can send nonbinding pre‐play text messages to try to convince followers to coordinate on the Pareto‐efficient equilibrium. The treatment variations consist of the gender of the leader, and whether the communication is one‐way (only leaders send messages) or two‐way (first followers send messages to their leader, and subsequently the leader sends messages to the group). We find that male leaders communicate more assertively. Communication with the followers induces female leaders to express significantly more often that they are part of the group, rather than standing above the group. Despite the different paths in communication, both men and women are equally likely to request the highest effort contribution. Men and women are equally effective leaders. |
| Keywords: | gender differences; leadership; leader effectiveness; coordination |
| JEL: | C92 J16 M14 M54 |
| Date: | 2017–02–16 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:77021&r=gen |
| By: | Timko, Krisztina |
| Abstract: | We study gender differences in the behavior and effectiveness of randomly selected leaders in a laboratory experiment using the minimum effort coordination game. Leaders can send non‐binding numeric messages to try to convince followers to coordinate on the Pareto‐efficient equilibrium. The treatment variations consist of the gender of the leader, and whether participants know or do not know the gender of the leader in their group. We find that female leaders choose more often to send a riskier high message in the beginning of the game, which hurts their effectiveness especially if gender is not revealed. However, if gender is revealed, both male and female leaders make more careful choices, and thus we do not observe any significant gender difference in leader effectiveness. |
| Keywords: | gender differences; leadership; leader effectiveness; coordination |
| JEL: | C92 J16 M14 M54 |
| Date: | 2017–02–16 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:77022&r=gen |
| By: | Kis-Katos, Krisztina (University of Goettingen); Pieters, Janneke (Wageningen University); Sparrow, Robert (Wageningen University) |
| Abstract: | We analyse the gender-specific effects of trade liberalization on work participation and hours of work and primary participation in domestic duties in Indonesia. We show that female work participation increased in relative terms in regions that were more exposed to input tariff reductions, whereas the effects of output tariff changes were much less pronounced. When looking at the potential channels for these effects, we find that in Indonesia the structure of initial protection was considerably more female-biased than skill-biased and hence reductions in input tariffs have especially benefited sectors with a larger initial concentration of female workers. This has led to a relative expansion of more female intensive sectors as well as to a decrease in gender segregation of occupation, especially among the low skilled. We also find that labour markets are a key channel through which trade liberalization affects marriage decisions. Delayed marriage among both sexes is related to input tariff liberalization, especially in the younger cohorts, as the improved labour opportunities for women reduce the returns to marriage. |
| Keywords: | labour force participation, gender inequality, marriage, trade liberalization, Indonesia |
| JEL: | F13 F16 J12 J16 J21 |
| Date: | 2017–02 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iza:izadps:dp10552&r=gen |
| By: | Asadullah, M Niaz; Wahhaj, Zaki |
| Abstract: | Despite significant improvement in female schooling over the last two decades, only a small proportion of women in South Asia are in wage employment. We revisit this puzzle using a nationally representative data set from Bangladesh. Probit regression results show that even after accounting for human capital endowments, women are systematically less likely to participate in paid work than men. Oaxaca decomposition of the gender gap confirms that most of it (i.e. 95%) is unexplained by endowment differences. Instead, community norms such as the practice of purdah (i.e. female seclusion) have a statistically significant and negative effect on women’s participation in paid work. We do not find any evidence that purdah norm variable affect paid work participation indirectly, via determining the labor force participation decision. The correlation between current work participation and purdah norm in natal household is insignificant confirming that the result is not driven by omitted individual-specific socioeconomic factors. We also use data on past purdah practice of the current community to estimate an instrumental variable Probit regression model and rule out the possibility of reverse causality. Detailed decomposition analysis reveals that community purdah norm accounts for a quarter of the total unexplained gap. The findings are robust to controls for the influence of co-resident inlaws, household structure, marital status, and a wide range of community characteristics such as ecological factors, presence of NGOs, provision of public infrastructure, remoteness and local labor market conditions including the norm of unacceptability of unmarried women's outside work in the community. |
| Keywords: | Purdah norm,gender inequality,labor market participation,poverty,Bangladesh |
| JEL: | I26 I28 J12 J16 O12 |
| Date: | 2017 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:glodps:21&r=gen |
| By: | Neumeier, Christian (University of Konstanz); Sorensen, Todd A. (University of Nevada, Reno); Webber, Douglas A. (Temple University) |
| Abstract: | The explicit costs of raising a child have grown over the past several decades. Less well understood are the implicit costs of having a child, and how they have changed over time. In this paper we use longitudinal administrative data from over 70,000 individuals in the Synthetic SIPP Beta to examine the earnings gap between mothers and non-mothers over the lifecycle and between cohorts. We observe women who never have children beginning to out earn women who will have children during their 20s. Gaps increase monotonically over the lifecycle, and decrease monotonically between cohorts from age 26 onwards. In our oldest cohort, lifetime gaps approach $350,000 by age 62. Cumulative labor market experience profiles show similar patterns, with experience gaps between mothers and non-mothers generally increasing over the lifecycle and decreasing between cohorts. We decompose this cumulative gap in earnings (up to age 43) into portions attributable to time spent out of the labor force, differing levels of education, years of marriage and a number of demographic controls. We find that this gap between mothers and non-mothers declines from around $220,000 for women born in the late 1940s to around $160,000 for women born in the late 1960s. Over 80% of the change in this gap can be explained by variables in our model, with changes in labor force participation by far the best explanation for the declining gap. Comparing our oldest cohort as they approach retirement to the projected lifecycle behavior of the 1965 cohort, we find that the earnings gap is estimated to drop from $350,000 (observed) to $282,000 (expected) and that the experience gap drops from 3.7 to 2.1 years. We also explore the intensive margin costs of having a child. A decomposition of earnings gaps between mothers of one child and mothers of two children also controls for age at first birth. Here, we find a decline in the gap from around $78,000 for our oldest cohorts to around $37,000 for our youngest cohorts. Our model explains a smaller share of the intensive margin decline. Changes in absences from the labor market again explain a large amount of the decline, while differences in age at first birth widen the gap. |
| Keywords: | family gap, opportunity cost of children, gender pay gap |
| JEL: | J11 J13 J16 J17 |
| Date: | 2017–02 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iza:izadps:dp10558&r=gen |
| By: | Yi Zeng (Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, Rostock, Germany); Huashuai Chen; Xiaomin Liu; Rui Ye; Enjun Xie; Zhihua Chen; Jiehua Lu; Jianxin Li; Yaohua Tian; Ting Ni; Lars Bolund; Kenneth C. Land; Anatoliy Yashin; Angela M. O'Rand; Liang Sun; Ze Yang; Wei Tao; Anastasia Gurinovic; Claudio Franceschi; Jichun Xie; Jun Gu; Yong Hou; Xiao Liu; Xun Xu; Jean-Marie Robine; Joris Deelen; Paola Sebastiani; P. Eline Slagboom; Thomas T. Perls; Elizabeth R. Hauser; William Gottschalk; Qihua Tan (Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, Rostock, Germany); Kaare Christensen; Mike Lutz; Xiao-Li Tian; Huanming Yang; Junxia Min; Chao Nie; James W. Vaupel (Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, Rostock, Germany) |
| Abstract: | Based on sex-stratified genome-wide association study (GWAS) of Han Chinese, 2,178 centenarians and 2,299 middle-aged controls, we identified 11 male- and 12 female-specific independent loci that are significantly associated with longevity ( P <10 -5 ), replicated in independent North and South regions in one sex, but are not significant ( P >0.05) in the other sex. We found that the association of rs60210535 at LINC00871 with longevity replicated well between Chinese females ( P =4.6x10 -5 ) and U.S. females ( P =9.0x10 -5 ), but was not significant in both Chinese and U.S. males ( P >0.05). We discovered that 11 male-specific and 34 female-specific pathways are significantly associated with longevity ( P <0.005, false discovery rate ( FDR ) <0.05). Male-specific pathways are enriched for inflammation and immunity genes, but female-specific pathways include tryptophan metabolic and PGC-1α pathways that converge to mitochondrial biogenesis. Polygenic risk score (PRS) analyses demonstrated that 11/12 male/female top loci ( P <10 -5 in one sex, P >0.05 in other sex), 44/58 male/female strong loci (10 -5 ≤ P <10 -4 in one sex, P >0.4 or P >0.35 in other sex), and 191/311 male/female moderate loci (10 -4 ≤ P <10 -3 in one sex, P >0.75 or P >0.7 in other sex) are jointly and highly associated with longevity exceeding a significance level P< 10 -8 in one sex, but not jointly associated with longevity in the other sex ( P >0.05). Our integrated PRS and novel sex-specific genetic relative benefit/loss ratio analyses indicate that females’ genetic constitution favors longevity more than males’. Further interdisciplinary collaborative efforts are warranted, such as replications from other populations, international meta-analyses with much larger sample size, lab tests, and in silico functional validations. Significance Statement: On average, women live significantly longer lives than men but they have lower physical performance and more adverse health outcomes at older ages compared to men: patterns that signify the male-female health-survival paradox (1). Research on sex differences in health and mortality has proliferated, but has yet to achieve a good understanding of the effects of genetic variants on the sex gap in longevity and health. Based on sex-stratified genome-wide association analysis (GWAS) of Han Chinese including centenarians with a sample size 2.7 times as large as other published largest single GWAS on longevity involving centenarians (2), the present study aims to contribute a better understanding of sex differences in genetic associations with longevity. |
| JEL: | J1 Z0 |
| Date: | 2017–02 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:dem:wpaper:wp-2017-004&r=gen |
| By: | Pestel, Nico |
| Abstract: | This paper examines the effect of the student sex ratio on marriage market outcomes of university graduates in Germany. Using Microcensus data combined with administrative information on the gender composition of students, I exploit substantial variation in gender imbalances by field of study experienced by individuals holding a tertiary degree at the time of education. The main findings show that a higher share of the own gender among fellow students negatively affects marriage market opportunities for women and significantly decreases the probability of living with a partner from the same field for both men and women. Moreover, when the own gender is abundant men are more likely to marry down with respect to educational status, while women rather have a partner with the same level of education. |
| JEL: | D10 I24 J12 |
| Date: | 2016 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:vfsc16:145510&r=gen |
| By: | Julie Beugnot (CRESE EA3190, Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, F-25000 Besançon, France); Bernard Fortin (Department of economics, Université Laval, CRREP and CIRANO, Canada); Guy Lacroix (Department of economics, Université Laval, CRREP, IZA and CIRANO, Canada); Marie Claire Villeval (Univ Lyon, CNRS, GATE L-SE UMR 5824, F-69130 Ecully, France; IZA, Bonn, Germany) |
| Abstract: | This paper extends the standard work effort model by allowing workers to interact through networks. We investigate experimentally whether peer performances and peer contextual effects influence individual performances. Two types of network are considered. Participants in Recursive networks are paired with participants who played previously in isolation. In Simultaneous networks, participants interact in real-time along an undirected line. Mean peer effects are identified in both cases. Individual performances increase with peer performances in the recursive network. In the simultaneous network, endogenous peer effects vary according to gender : they are large for men but not statistically different from zero for women. |
| Keywords: | Peer effects, social networks, work effort, piece rate, experiment |
| JEL: | C91 J16 J24 J31 M52 |
| Date: | 2017 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:gat:wpaper:1711&r=gen |
| By: | Cohen-Zada, Danny (Ben Gurion University); Krumer, Alex (University of St. Gallen); Rosenboim, Mosi (Ben Gurion University); Shapir, Offer Moshe (New York University Shanghai) |
| Abstract: | We exploit a unique setting in which two professionals compete in a real-life tennis contest with high monetary rewards in order to assess how men and women respond to competitive pressure. Comparing their performance in low-stakes versus high-stakes situations, we find that men consistently choke under competitive pressure, but with regard to women the results are mixed. Furthermore, even if women show a drop in performance in the more crucial stages of the match, it is in any event about 50% smaller than that of men. These findings are robust to different specifications and estimation strategies. |
| Keywords: | gender, performance, competitive pressure, tennis, choking |
| JEL: | J16 J24 |
| Date: | 2017–02 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iza:izadps:dp10587&r=gen |
| By: | Beugnot, Julie (Université de Franche Comté); Fortin, Bernard (Université Laval); Lacroix, Guy (Université Laval); Villeval, Marie Claire (CNRS, GATE) |
| Abstract: | We investigate whether peer effects at work differ by gender and whether the gender difference in peer effects – if any – depends on work organization, precisely the structure of social networks. We develop a social network model with gender heterogeneity that we test by means of a real-effort laboratory experiment. We compare sequential networks in which information on peers flows exclusively downward (from peers to the worker) and simultaneous networks where it disseminates bi-directionally along an undirected line (from peers to the worker and from the worker to peers). We identify strong gender differences in peer effects, as males' effort increases with peers' performance in both types of network, whereas females behave conditionally. While they are influenced by peers in sequential networks, females disregard their peers' performance when information flows in both directions. We reject that the difference between networks is driven by having one's performance observed by others or by the presence of peers in the same session in simultaneous networks. We interpret the gender difference in terms of perception of a higher competitiveness of the environment in simultaneous than in sequential networks because of the bi-directional flow of information. |
| Keywords: | gender, peer effects, social networks, work effort, experiment |
| JEL: | C91 J16 J24 J31 M52 |
| Date: | 2017–02 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iza:izadps:dp10588&r=gen |
| By: | Benedikte Bjerge; Nina Torm; Neda Trifkovic |
| Abstract: | In many developing countries the skill base is a cause of concern with respect to international competition. Firm-provided training is generally seen as an important tool for bridging the skills gap between labour force and private sector demand. Yet little is known about how successful such training may be in closing the gender wage gap. We use a matched employer–employee panel dataset to assess why firms train and whether formal training affects wage outcomes in Vietnamese SMEs. Training is generally found to be firm-sponsored and specific in nature. We find that training is associated with a wage increase of 7–22 per cent for female workers only, depending on the analytical approach taken. We also show evidence that the wage increase is associated only with on-the-job training and that lower ability workers are more likely to be trained. Our findings indicate that, at least in Viet Nam, firm-sponsored on-the-job training helps close the gender wage gap. |
| Keywords: | training; wage, SME, Viet Nam |
| Date: | 2016 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:unu:wpaper:wp2016-149&r=gen |
| By: | Schone, Pal (Institute for Social Research, Oslo); von Simson, Kristine (Institute for Social Research, Oslo); Strom, Marte (Institute for Social Research, Oslo) |
| Abstract: | We use idiosyncratic variation in gender composition across cohorts within Norwegian lower-secondary schools to analyze the impact of female peers on students' grades and choices of STEM subjects. We find that more female peers in lower secondary increases girls' probability of choosing STEM-courses in upper secondary, and the effect on choices is larger than the effect on grades. Survey evidence suggests that a potential mechanism is an improved classroom environment. Boys' performance is negatively affected by more female peers. They also start upper secondary later and more often choose vocational studies. |
| Keywords: | gender, education, peer effects |
| JEL: | I21 J16 |
| Date: | 2017–02 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iza:izadps:dp10586&r=gen |
| By: | Gaëlle Ferrant; Alexandre Kolev; Caroline Tassot |
| Abstract: | The OECD has long argued that the ultimate goal of public policies is to improve the quality of our lives. But what makes us happy? Does living in a country guaranteeing equal rights and opportunities to women and men increase people’s happiness? This paper shows that genderbased discrimination in social institutions, measured by the Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI), impedes well-being, beyond its negative impact on economic growth and GDP. Both men and women are happier when living in a country where social institutions offer equal rights and opportunities to women and men, even when taking into account country and individual characteristics. Current gender-based discrimination in social institutions fuels a decline of 4.4% in the world average level of life satisfaction. Conversely, eliminating gender-based discrimination in social institutions could reduce the share of the “unhappy” population from 14% to 5% globally. L'OCDE a longtemps soutenu que l’objectif ultime des politiques publiques était d'améliorer notre qualité de vie. Mais qu'est-ce qui nous rend heureux? Vivre dans un pays garantissant l'égalité des droits et des chances aux femmes et aux hommes augmente-t-il notre bonheur? Cette étude montre que les discriminations envers les femmes au sein des institutions sociales, mesurées par l’indicateur institutions sociales et égalité femme-homme (SIGI), réduisent le bienêtr des individus, au-delà de son impact négatif sur la croissance économique et le PIB. Les hommes et les femmes sont plus heureux quand ils vivent dans un pays où les institutions sociales leur offrent des droits et opportunités égaux. L’étude estime que le niveau actuel de discrimination envers les femmes au sein des institutions sociales induit une perte de bien-être de 4.4 % au niveau mondial. Réciproquement, l’élimination de toutes formes de discriminations envers les femmes au sein des institutions sociales réduirait la proportion d’individus insatisfaits de 14 % à 5 % au niveau mondial. |
| Keywords: | gender inequality, social institutions, subjective well-being |
| JEL: | D60 I31 J16 |
| Date: | 2017–03–08 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:oec:devaaa:337-en&r=gen |
| By: | Quan-Hoang Vuong; Hiep-Hung Pham; Thu Trang Vuong |
| Abstract: | Nowadays, physical exercise and sports activities are regarded as the best means for people to keep fit and boost their health. In Vietnam, exercising on a daily basis is still underappreciated as twothirds of the population only exercise at trivial or low levels. Based on applying the baseline category logit model, we conduct an analysis to figure out the factors affecting people’s level of exercise. The findings show that males tend to engage in physical activities more than females, with the difference potentially being as high as 18.9%. In addition, females with a high educational background (university or higher) usually exercise less than those with lower education, perhaps due to their job’s attributes and their different routines. The opposite is the case in males, yet the differences for both genders are relatively small (only about 1%). The study also shows that those with higher BMI have higher activity levels. In particular, those with the highest BMI (BMI = 37.2) have a likelihood of regularly exercising as high as 74%. Furthermore, improved health communication systems and regular health check-ups at home are also associated with more frequent exercise and engagement in sport. |
| Keywords: | Physical exercise; Sports; Gender; Educational background; Body mass index; Health communication |
| JEL: | I10 |
| Date: | 2017–03–02 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:sol:wpaper:2013/247597&r=gen |
| By: | Erling Barth (Institute for Social Research, Oslo; NBER); Sari Pekkala Kerr (Wellesley College); Claudia Olivetti (Boston College; NBER) |
| Keywords: | earnings, gender differentials, earnings inequality |
| Date: | 2017–02–28 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:boc:bocoec:923&r=gen |
| By: | Theune, Katja; Behr, Andreas |
| Abstract: | Evidence on female firm leadership is scarce and often confined to a small number of firms included in share price indices. Our large firm level data set from 2011 contains 441287 firms from 14 EU states. Based on management information, we provide evidence for the extent and the performance of female-led firms. We find strong differences in the extent of female firm leaders between the 14 states but for most countries no evidence for significant performance differences between male- and female-led firms, neither for the whole country samples nor within six broadly defined sectors. This result is confirmed when applying a matching approach to account for potential selection problems. |
| JEL: | J16 L25 M12 |
| Date: | 2016 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:vfsc16:145798&r=gen |
| By: | Bilson, Jessica R. (University of Western Australia); Jetter, Michael (University of Western Australia); Kristoffersen, Ingebjørg (University of Western Australia) |
| Abstract: | We investigate the effect of individual income on interpersonal trust levels, using longitudinal survey data for 22,219 Australians over the 2005-2014 period. Our results produce two key insights. First, we demonstrate the importance of accounting for individual-level fixed effects, as the income coefficient goes from positive and statistically significant in a pooled regression to negative and statistically significant in a fixed effects panel model. Second, this negative effect of income on trust holds only for men, and not for women. This result appears to be concentrated among males who are young and moving from no income to positive income, but employment status is not the driving factor. Further, we explore a potential channel via psychological characteristics and find evidence of men reporting greater levels of neuroticism and fretfulness following an increase in income but, again, women do not. In turn, neuroticism and fretfulness are robust predictors of decreased trust levels; these additional findings are based on cross-sectional variation only, since both these variables are available in only one of the survey waves to date. |
| Keywords: | gender differences, income levels and trust, interpersonal trust, neuroticism |
| JEL: | D01 D31 J16 Z10 |
| Date: | 2017–02 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iza:izadps:dp10585&r=gen |