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on Experimental Economics |
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Issue of 2024‒07‒22
forty-one papers chosen by |
| By: | Bauer, Michal; Chytilová, Julie; Miguel, Edward |
| Keywords: | experiment, preference measurement, survey, validation |
| Date: | 2024–06–21 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cdl:econwp:qt6cz1s9mp&r= |
| By: | Ajzenman, Nicolás; Ardanaz, Martín; Cruces, Guillermo; Feierherd, Germán; Lunghi, Ignacio |
| Abstract: | Recent literature highlights a paradox in corruption prevention messaging: instead of reducing tolerance for corruption, such campaigns can inadvertently intensify it by priming the existence of corruption while failing to diminish citizens beliefs about government misbehavior. Building on Cheeseman and Peiffer (2022), which demonstrates that messages focused on combating corruption often backfire among individuals with preexisting negative perceptions of corruption, we posit that an effective strategy to mitigate backfiring involves shifting those pessimistic perceptions before delivering the corruption eradication messages. To test our hypothesis, we conducted a randomized survey experiment within the context of a major institutional reform to reduce tax agency corruption in Honduras. Results confirm the backfiring findings of previous literature, but also show that our approach effectively mitigates perceived corruption and diminishes the propensity for tax evasion, especially among skeptics. |
| Keywords: | corruption;tax administration;Tax evasion;Survey experiment |
| JEL: | C90 D90 H26 K42 |
| Date: | 2024–05 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:idb:brikps:13555&r= |
| By: | Xiaoqiao Wang (School of Management and Economics, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen); Jing Xie (Department of Finance and Business Economics, Faculty of Business Administration, University of Macau); Bohui Zhang (School of Management and Economics, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen); Xiaofeng Zhao (Faculty of Business, Lingnan University) |
| Abstract: | We conduct a field experiment to explore why firms pay dividends. We change managers’perception of agency concerns from outside investors, investors’ risk preference, the information gap with outside investors, and firms’ tax clientele by contacting publicly listed firms in China to test four dividend theories (agency, bird-in-hand, signaling, and tax clientele theories). We find that past payers (firms that paid dividends in the previous year) receiving the treatment of agency concerns increase their dividends relative to the control group. In contrast, firms receiving the other treatments do not experience changes in their dividend policy. The treatment effect of agency concerns in past payers is more prominent for firms with weaker governance and robust to various model specifications. A post-experimental survey confirms our findings. The evidence suggests that the agency cost motive is most pertinent in explaining a firm’s dividend policy. |
| Keywords: | Dividend policy, Field experiment, Agency costs, Investor Relations |
| JEL: | G35 C93 G34 |
| Date: | 2024–06 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:boa:wpaper:202406&r= |
| By: | Rojas Méndez, Ana María; Scartascini, Carlos |
| Abstract: | Behavioral biases often lead to suboptimal decisions, a vulnerability that extends to policymakers who operate under conditions of fatigue, stress, and time constraints and with significant implications for public welfare. While behavioral economics offers strategies like default adjustments to mitigate decision-making costs, deploying these policy interventions is not always feasible. Thus, enhancing the quality of policy decision-making is crucial, and evidence suggests that targeted training can boost job performance among policymakers. This study evaluates the impact of a behavioral training course on policy decision-making through a randomized experiment and a survey test that incorporates problem-solving and decision-making tasks among approximately 25, 000 participants enrolled in the course. Our findings reveal a significant improvement in the treated group, with responses averaging 0.6 standard deviations better than those in the control group. Given the increasing prevalence of such courses, this paper underscores the potential of behavioral training in improving policy decisions and advocates for further research through additional experimental studies. |
| Keywords: | Experimental Design;behavioral economics;Training;public policy;Government officials |
| JEL: | H83 Z18 |
| Date: | 2024–04 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:idb:brikps:13476&r= |
| By: | Lee, Neil; Pardy, Martina; Mcneil, Andrew |
| Abstract: | The early 2020s saw a spike in inflation across much of the advanced world, with pervasive economic consequences. There is strong evidence that economic shocks generally have political consequences, but few studies have specifically focused on inflation. In this paper, we address this gap using an original, pre-registered survey experiment in the United Kingdom, a country which saw the highest consumer price inflation in 40 years and a major cost of living crisis. First, we describe how individuals, on average, are only neutral in their confidence in the Bank of England’s and economists’ ability to tackle inflation. The population is even more pessimistic regarding the government’s abilities. Second, using an experimental survey vignette, we causally identify the effect of reminding and/or informing participants about the high levels of inflation. While our treatment shifts inflation expectations, we find no evidence that it reduces trust in government, the bank of England, nor economists more generally. Instead, we find weak evidence that respondents blame corporations. Inflation also makes citizens less likely to support public sector pay rises although we find no effect on authoritarianism, redistribution attitudes, attitudes towards overseas trade, or optimism towards the future. |
| Keywords: | inflation; political attitudes; political trust; authoritarianism; survey experiment |
| JEL: | N0 |
| Date: | 2024–06 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ehl:lserod:123926&r= |
| By: | Ayato Kitadai; Sinndy Dayana Rico Lugo; Yudai Tsurusaki; Yusuke Fukasawa; Nariaki Nishino |
| Abstract: | Economic experiments offer a controlled setting for researchers to observe human decision-making and test diverse theories and hypotheses; however, substantial costs and efforts are incurred to gather many individuals as experimental participants. To address this, with the development of large language models (LLMs), some researchers have recently attempted to develop simulated economic experiments using LLMs-driven agents, called generative agents. If generative agents can replicate human-like decision-making in economic experiments, the cost problem of economic experiments can be alleviated. However, such a simulation framework has not been yet established. Considering the previous research and the current evolutionary stage of LLMs, this study focuses on the reasoning ability of generative agents as a key factor toward establishing a framework for such a new methodology. A multi-agent simulation, designed to improve the reasoning ability of generative agents through prompting methods, was developed to reproduce the result of an actual economic experiment on the ultimatum game. The results demonstrated that the higher the reasoning ability of the agents, the closer the results were to the theoretical solution than to the real experimental result. The results also suggest that setting the personas of the generative agents may be important for reproducing the results of real economic experiments. These findings are valuable for the future definition of a framework for replacing human participants with generative agents in economic experiments when LLMs are further developed. |
| Date: | 2024–06 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:arx:papers:2406.11426&r= |
| By: | Ruohan Zhan; Shichao Han; Yuchen Hu; Zhenling Jiang |
| Abstract: | Recommender systems are essential for content-sharing platforms by curating personalized content. To evaluate updates of recommender systems targeting content creators, platforms frequently engage in creator-side randomized experiments to estimate treatment effect, defined as the difference in outcomes when a new (vs. the status quo) algorithm is deployed on the platform. We show that the standard difference-in-means estimator can lead to a biased treatment effect estimate. This bias arises because of recommender interference, which occurs when treated and control creators compete for exposure through the recommender system. We propose a "recommender choice model" that captures how an item is chosen among a pool comprised of both treated and control content items. By combining a structural choice model with neural networks, the framework directly models the interference pathway in a microfounded way while accounting for rich viewer-content heterogeneity. Using the model, we construct a double/debiased estimator of the treatment effect that is consistent and asymptotically normal. We demonstrate its empirical performance with a field experiment on Weixin short-video platform: besides the standard creator-side experiment, we carry out a costly blocked double-sided randomization design to obtain a benchmark estimate without interference bias. We show that the proposed estimator significantly reduces the bias in treatment effect estimates compared to the standard difference-in-means estimator. |
| Date: | 2024–06 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:arx:papers:2406.14380&r= |
| By: | Margot Belguise; Yuchen Huang; Zhexun Mo |
| Abstract: | Recent experimental evidence contends that meritocratic ideals are mainly a Western phenomenon. Intriguingly, the Chinese public does not appear to differentiate between merit- and luck-based inequalities, despite China’s historical emphasis on meritocratic institutions. We propose that this phenomenon could be due to the Chinese public’s greater reluctance to make an active choice in realstake redistribution decisions. We run an incentivized redistribution experiment with elite university students in China and France, by varying the initial split of payoffs between two real-life workers to redistribute from. We show that, compared to French respondents, Chinese respondents consistently and significantly choose more non-redistribution across both highly unequal and relatively equal status quo scenarios. Additionally, we also find that Chinese respondents do differentiate between merit- and luck-based inequalities, and do not redistribute less than the French, excluding the individuals who engage in non-redistribution choices. Chinese respondents are also as reactive as the French towards scenarios with noisy signals of merit, such as inequalities of opportunities. Ultimately, we contend that the reluctance to make an active choice is indicative of diminished political agency to act upon redistribution decisions with real-life stakes, rather than apathy, inattention, having benefited from the status quo in Chinese society or libertarian preferences among the Chinese. Notably, our findings show that Chinese individuals’ reluctance to make a choice is particularly pronounced among those from families of working-class and farming backgrounds, while it is absent among individuals whose families have closer ties to the private sector. |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:not:notnic:2024-05&r= |
| By: | Charlotte Klatt (University of Kassel); Anna Schulze-Tilling (Bocconi University & University of Bonn) |
| Abstract: | Interventions to decrease meat consumption are often only implemented for short periods of time, and it is unclear how they might have lasting effects. We combine student canteen consumption (over 270, 000 purchases made by over 4, 500 guests) and survey data (N>800) to study how a one-month intervention to decrease meat consumption affects consumer behavior post-intervention. During the intervention period, meat meals were eliminated from the menu of the treatment canteen, while the two control canteens were unaffected. Using a difference-in-difference approach, we estimate that guests usually frequenting the treatment canteen did not significantly reduce their visits to the canteen during or after the intervention. In the two months following the intervention, they were still 4% less likely to choose the meat option when visiting the canteen, relative to baseline. A large part of this effect seems explicable with guests learning about the quality of the canteen's vegetarian meals. We find little to no evidence of the intervention changing perceived social norms. |
| Keywords: | Food consumption, behavioral intervention, field experiment, habit formation, experience |
| JEL: | C93 D12 D83 Q18 |
| Date: | 2024–06 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ajk:ajkdps:315&r= |
| By: | Kayleigh Barnes; Sherry A. Glied; Benjamin R. Handel; Grace Kim |
| Abstract: | Medical provider price transparency is often touted as a way to lower health care spending. But the impact of price transparency is theoretically ambiguous: it could lower health care spending via increased consumer price shopping or improved insurer bargaining but could also raise health care prices via improved provider bargaining or provider collusion. We conduct a randomized-controlled trial to examine the impact of a state-wide medical charge transparency tool in outpatient provider markets in New York State. In the experiment, individual providers’ billed charges (list prices) were released randomly at the level of the procedure and three-digit zipcode. We use a comprehensive commercial claims database to assess the impact of this intervention and find that it leads to a small increase in overall billed charges (+0.75%). This effect is concentrated among low-priced providers in markets with low out-of-network spending, suggesting that the transparency tool improves provider pricing information. We find no evidence of quantity effects. Results do not vary consistently across specialty groups, market concentration, frequency of service use, or frequency of website use. These results are consistent with price transparency having a minimal effect on consumer shopping while slightly improving provider information about competitors’ charges. |
| JEL: | I11 L1 |
| Date: | 2024–06 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:nbr:nberwo:32580&r= |
| By: | Rahman Md. Mostafizur; Khatun Mst. Asma; Moinul Islam; Tatsuyoshi Saijo; Koji Kotani |
| Keywords: | Sustainable food consumption, Organic vegetables, Future design, Deliberation, Social experiment |
| Date: | 2024–07 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:kch:wpaper:sdes-2024-4&r= |
| By: | Takanori Ida; Takunori Ishihara; Koichiro Ito; Daido Kido; Toru Kitagawa; Shosei Sakaguchi; Shusaku Sasaki |
| Abstract: | Economic policies often involve dynamic interventions, where individuals receive repeated interventions over multiple periods. This dynamics makes past responses informative to predict future responses and ultimate outcomes depend on the history of interventions. Despite these phenomena, existing economic studies typically focus on static targeting, possibly overlooking key information from dynamic interventions. We develop a framework for designing optimal dynamic targeting that maximizes social welfare gains from dynamic policy intervention. Our framework can be applied to experimental or quasi-experimental data with sequential randomization. We demonstrate that dynamic targeting can outperform static targeting through several key mechanisms: learning, habit formation, and screening effects. We then propose methods to empirically identify these effects. By applying this method to a randomized controlled trial on a residential energy rebate program, we show that dynamic targeting significantly outperforms conventional static targeting, leading to improved social welfare gains. We observe significant heterogeneity in the learning, habit formation, and screening effects, and illustrate how our approach leverages this heterogeneity to design optimal dynamic targeting. |
| JEL: | C1 C50 C9 C93 Q4 Q40 Q41 Q48 Q50 Q58 |
| Date: | 2024–06 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:nbr:nberwo:32561&r= |
| By: | Sievertsen, Hans Henrik (University of Bristol); Smith, Sarah (University of Bristol) |
| Abstract: | This paper reports results from a survey experiment comparing the effect of (the same) opinions expressed by male versus female experts. Members of the public were asked for their opinions on topical issues and shown the opinion of either a male or a female economist, all professors at leading US universities. We find, first, that experts can persuade members of the public - the opinions of individual expert economists have an effect on public opinion - and, second, that the opinions expressed by female economists are more persuasive than the same opinions expressed by male economists. |
| Keywords: | economic expertise, persuasion, gender, stereotypes, survey experiments |
| JEL: | A11 D83 J16 |
| Date: | 2024–05 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iza:izadps:dp17029&r= |
| By: | Subhashish M. Chowdhury (University of Sheffield); Dan Kovenock (Economic Science Institute, Chapman University); Anwesha Mukherjee (Department of Economics, University of Reading) |
| Abstract: | Contests are situations in which agents compete by irreversibly expending costly resources in an attempt to win a prize. Due to their applications in conflict, rent-seeking, organizational incentives, sports, litigation, and political campaigns, contests are widely applied in the social sciences. In this survey we summarize some main results and recent developments of experimental studies in contest theory. We also point out their broader applications in the social sciences. |
| Keywords: | Contest; Experiment; Conflict; Survey |
| JEL: | C91 C92 D72 D74 |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:chu:wpaper:24-12&r= |
| By: | Cars Hommes (University of Amsterdam, Tinbergen Institute, Bank of Canada); Julien Pinter (Minho University, Universidad de Alicante); Isabelle Salle (University of Ottawa, University of Amsterdam, Tinbergen Institute) |
| Abstract: | We conduct an information-provision experiment within a large-scale household survey on public finance in France, The Netherlands and Italy. We elicit prior opinions via open-ended (OE) questions and introduce a measure of macroeconomic policy literacy. A central bank (CB) educational blogpost explaining the mechanics of CB money preceded by a short video clip on public finance can persistently induce less support for monetary-financed proposals, which induces more support for fiscal discipline and CB independence, no matter the respondents’ level of policy literacy. However, prior beliefs matter and contradictory information may be polarizing. Information is shown to affect views by shifting the respondents’ inflation and tax expectations associated to policy options. |
| Keywords: | Large-scale household survey, information-provision experiment, RCT, central bank communication, expectations |
| JEL: | E |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:inf:wpaper:2024.9&r= |
| By: | Sarah Holmes Berk; James J. Choi; Jay Garg; John Beshears; David Laibson |
| Abstract: | Automatic enrollment is often used to increase retirement savings. What are the effects of using it (or, alternatively, requiring an active enrollment choice) to increase short-term savings? We evaluate two experiments in the U.K. at employers that enable workers to set up payroll contributions to fund short-term savings accounts. In the first experiment (N = 7, 404), employees at two firms were randomly assigned opt-in, opt-out, or active choice enrollment into the short-term savings program. Nine months later, participation was 48 percentage points higher under automatic enrollment than opt-in enrollment, and average balances were £114 higher. In the second experiment (N = 3, 605), after years of offering opt-in payroll contributions to fund a short-term savings account, the employer changed to opt-out enrollment for new hires only. In tenure month 18, participation in the short-term savings program was 48 percentage points higher under automatic enrollment, and average balances were £193 higher. |
| JEL: | D14 G51 |
| Date: | 2024–06 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:nbr:nberwo:32581&r= |
| By: | Ahsanuzzaman,; Eskander, Shaikh; Islam, Asad; Wang, Liang Choon |
| Abstract: | We use a randomized controlled trial in Bangladesh to test three types of non-price energy conservation strategies that influence electricity consumption of households: (i) advice on electricity conservation methods (knowledge treatment); (ii) (median) electricity consumption of others in the suburb (suburb comparison); and (iii) (median) electricity consumption of neighbors (neighbor comparison). We find that providing advice on saving energy could reduce households' electricity consumption and bills significantly. The effects are stronger for advice on electricity conservation methods than neighbor and suburb comparisons. The effects of providing information about own electricity consumption relative to neighbors’ electricity consumption is similar to the effects of giving information about own electricity consumption relative to electricity consumption of households in the same suburb. The effects among households who were inefficient users in neighbor and suburb comparison groups are almost as strong as those in the knowledge treatment group. The effects across all treatment groups become stronger over time as they receive repeated information. |
| Keywords: | electricity consumption; energy efficiency; field experiment; non-price information; social norms |
| JEL: | J1 |
| Date: | 2024–09–01 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ehl:lserod:123900&r= |
| By: | Alfonsi, Livia; Bauer, Michal; Chytilová, Julie; Miguel, Edward |
| Abstract: | We study how human capital and economic conditions causally affect the choice of religious denomination. We utilize a longitudinal dataset monitoring the religious history of more than 5, 000 Kenyans over twenty years, in tandem with a randomized experiment (deworming) that has exogenously boosted education and living standards. The main finding is that the program reduces the likelihood of membership in a Pentecostal denomination up to 20 years later when respondents are in their mid-thirties, while there is a comparable increase in membership in traditional Christian denominations. The effect is concentrated and statistically significant among a sub-group of participants who benefited most from the program in terms of increased education and income. The effects are unlikely due to increased secularization, because the program does not reduce measures of religiosity. The results help explain why the global growth of the Pentecostal movement, sometimes described a "New Reformation", is centered in low-income communities. |
| Keywords: | Economics, Applied Economics, Behavioral and Social Science, Basic Behavioral and Social Science, Quality Education, C93, O12, Z12, Development Studies, Applied economics, Development studies |
| Date: | 2024–03–01 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cdl:econwp:qt02z5h7d0&r= |
| By: | Marianne Andries; Leonardo Bursztyn; Thomas Chaney; Milena Djourelova |
| Abstract: | We explore the mechanics of empathy. In a controlled immersive virtual reality experiment, we show that neutral information on unauthorized immigration magnifies the empathetic response of subjects when they witness the struggles of unauthorized migrants. We conjecture that perceiving others as similar magnifies empathy: it makes it possible to live their experience as if one were ‘in their shoes.’ In a separate, incentivized experiment, we show that the same neutral information increases perceived similarity to unauthorized migrants. We provide similar evidence in observational data, showing that contact with a given foreign origin group induces a greater empathetic response – more charitable donations – after the country of origin of this group is hit by a natural disaster, and a higher perceived similarity to this group. Together, our evidence suggests that the ability to put oneself in the shoes of another person or group can be enhanced through standard policy tools such as neutral information provision and inter-group contact. |
| JEL: | C9 D91 Z00 |
| Date: | 2024–06 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:nbr:nberwo:32569&r= |
| By: | Danyang Jia (School of Cybersecurity, Northwestern Polytechnical University and School of Artificial Intelligence, OPtics and ElectroNics (iOPEN), Northwestern Polytechnical University, CHINA); Ivan Romic (School of Artificial Intelligence, OPtics and ElectroNics (iOPEN), Northwestern Polytechnical University, CHINA, Center for Computational Social Science, Kobe University, and Research Institute for Economics and Business Administration, Kobe University, JAPAN); Lei Shi (School of Statistics and Mathematics, Yunnan University of Finance and Economics, CHINA); Qi Su (Department of Automation, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Key Laboratory of System Control and Information Processing, Ministry of Education of China, and Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Intelligent Control and Management, CHINA); Chen Liu (School of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, CHINA); Jinzhuo Liu (School of Software, Yunnan University, CHINA); Petter Holme (Center for Computational Social Science, Kobe University, JANPAN and Department of Computer Science, Aalto University, FINLAND); Xuelong Li (School of Cybersecurity, Northwestern Polytechnical University and School of Artificial Intelligence, OPtics and ElectroNics (iOPEN), Northwestern Polytechnical University, CHINA); Zhen Wang (School of Cybersecurity, Northwestern Polytechnical University and School of Artificial Intelligence, OPtics and ElectroNics (iOPEN), Northwestern Polytechnical University, CHINA) |
| Abstract: | The awareness of individuals regarding their social network surroundings and their capacity to use social connections to their advantage are well-established human characteristics. Economic games, incorporated with network science, are frequently used to examine social behaviour. Traditionally, such game models and experiments artificially limit players' abilities to take varied actions toward distinct social neighbours (i.e., to operate their social networks). We designed an experimental paradigm that alters the degree of social network agency to interact with individual neighbours, and applied it to the prisoner's dilemma (N = 735), trust game (N = 735), and ultimatum game (N = 735) to investigate cooperation, trust, and fairness. The freedom to interact led to more prosocial behaviour across all three economic games and resulted in higher wealth and lower inequality compared to controls without such freedom. These findings suggest that human behaviour is more prosocial than current science indicates. |
| Keywords: | Behavioural science; Networks; Cooperation; Prosociality |
| Date: | 2023–03 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:kob:dpaper:dp2023-11&r= |
| By: | Díaz Escobar, Ana María; Salas Bahamón, Luz Magdalena; Piras, Claudia; Suaya, Agustina |
| Abstract: | This study sheds light on the growing trend and gender dynamics of workplace flexibility in Latin America, underscoring the importance of remote work options in the regions labor market. We explore gender differences in willingness to pay (WTP) for remote work arrangements in Latin America, using a discrete choice experiment across five countries: Colombia, Peru, Mexico, Chile, and Argentina. Results reveals a general trend among Latin American workers to trade off some wage in exchange for more remote work options, both fully and partially remote, in two male-dominated occupations: Manufacturing and information technology. On average, participants agreed to sacrifice around 10% of their wage for hybrid jobs (80% remote, 20% on-site). The WTP for fully remote work was slightly lower, at about 6% of the wage. Women exhibit a higher WTP for flexibility compared to men, with a 62.5% higher willingness across estimates for hybrid arrangements. Moreover, women's inclination towards fully remote options was distinct, as they showed a positive WTP (up to 10% of their salary) for such arrangements, whereas men exhibited no willingness to reduce their wages for fully remote roles. |
| Keywords: | willingness to pay;Flexible Work Arrangements;Discrete Choice Experiment. |
| JEL: | J22 J31 J41 J51 J71 |
| Date: | 2024–03 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:idb:brikps:13439&r= |
| By: | Alexander Cappelen (NHH Norwegian School of Economics, FAIR The Choice Lab); Yiming Liu (HU Berlin, WZB Berlin Social Science Center); Hedda Nielsen (HU Berlin); Bertil Tungodden (NHH Norwegian School of Economics, FAIR The Choice Lab) |
| Abstract: | Modern societies are characterized by widespread disparities in opportunities, which play a crucial role in creating income inequality. This paper investigates how individuals handle income inequality arising from these unequal opportunities. We report from a large-scale experimental study involving general populations in the United States and Scandinavia, where participants make consequential redistributive decisions as third-party ‘spectators’ for workers who faced unequal opportunities. Our findings provide strong evidence that a significant majority of people are willing to accept inequality caused by unequal opportunities, a position that markedly contrasts with their responses to inequality caused by luck. Two distinct forces drive greater acceptance of inequality under unequal opportunities: the tendency to mistakenly attribute the impact of unequal opportunities to inherent productivity, and the moral relevance attributed to choice differences caused by unequal opportunities. We further demonstrate a clear societal and political divide in responses to unequal opportunities, with Americans and right-wing voters exhibiting a greater acceptance of the resulting inequality, reflecting both differences in fairness views and attribution biases in these populations. |
| Keywords: | unequal opportunities; inequality acceptance; attribution bias; fairness views; |
| Date: | 2024–07–05 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:rco:dpaper:506&r= |
| By: | Abate, Gashaw Tadesse; Abay, Kibrom A.; Chamberlin, Jordan; Sebsibie, Samuel |
| Abstract: | The emergence of rural land rental markets in Sub-Saharan Africa is recognized as a key component of the region’s ongoing economic transformation. However, the evidence base on land market participation relies on survey-derived measures, which do not always cohere when compared and triangulated, suggesting the possibility of non-trivial measurement error. We report the results of a priming and list experiments designed to shed light on a persistent mystery in rural household survey data from Africa: why there are so many fewer self-reported landlords (renters-out) than tenants (renters-in)? Our design addresses two hypotheses using experimental data from Ethiopia. First, rented-out and rented-in land may be systematically underreported because enumerators and respondents are typically primed to emphasize parcels that are actively managed/cultivated by the household. Second, rented or sharecropped-out land may be systematically underreported because of respondents’ reluctance to acknowledge an activity for which public disclosure may have negative repercussions. We address the first hypothesis with a priming experiment by exposing a random subset of respondents to a nudge that explicitly reminded them to fully account for all land, including rented/sharecropped-in and rented/sharecropped-out. We address the second hypothesis with a double-list experiment, designed to elicit true rates of land renting and sharecropping-out. We find that nudging induces about 4 percentage points increase (or 13% in relative terms) in the share of households participating in renting in or sharecropping-in practices but has negligible effects on reported rates of renting and sharecropping-out. Interestingly, our list experiment indicates much higher revealed rates of renting-out (14-15%) than is reflected in the nominal parcel-roster responses (3%). The magnitude of the latter finding fully explains the apparent difference in renting in versus renting-out rates derived from the regular parcel roster responses. These results indicate that efforts to document land market participation rate and associated impacts must overcome large systematic reporting biases. |
| Keywords: | land; households; survey design; surveys; Africa; Sub-Saharan Africa |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:ifprid:2255&r= |
| By: | Hein, Ilka; Cecil, Julia (Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München); Lermer, Eva (LMU Munich) |
| Abstract: | Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly taking over leadership tasks in companies, including the provision of feedback. However, the effect of AI-driven feedback on employees and its theoretical foundations are poorly understood. We aimed to reduce this research gap by comparing perceptions of AI and human feedback based on construal level theory and the feedback process model. A 2 x 2 between-subjects design with vignettes was applied to manipulate feedback source (human vs. AI) and valence (negative vs. positive). In a preregistered experimental study (S1) and subsequent direct replication (S2), responses from NS1 = 263 and NS2 = 449 participants who completed a German online questionnaire were studied. Regression analyses showed that AI feedback was rated as less accurate and led to lower performance motivation, acceptance of the feedback provider, and intention to seek further feedback. These effects were mediated by perceived social distance. Moreover, for feedback acceptance and performance motivation, the differences were only found for positive but not for negative feedback in the first study. This implies that AI feedback may not inherently be perceived as more negatively than human feedback as it depends on the feedback’s valence. Furthermore, the mediation effects indicate that the shown negative evaluations of the AI can be explained by higher social distance and that increased social closeness to feedback providers may improve appraisals of them and of their feedback. Theoretical contributions of the studies and implications for the use of AI for providing feedback in the workplace are discussed, emphasizing the influence of effects related to construal level theory. |
| Date: | 2024–06–06 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:osf:osfxxx:uczaw&r= |
| By: | Pavlova, Lora |
| Abstract: | In a randomized experiment embedded in a survey, I test the effects of variations in question wording and format on consumer response behavior and the corresponding inflation expectations. To this end, survey participants from a representative sample of German consumers are broken down into four treatment groups and presented with different versions of a question asking for their subjective distribution for inflation over the next 12 months. As part of the experiment, two competing wordings, previously known from leading consumer surveys, are considered: (i) the change in prices in general or (ii) the inflation rate. In addition, I compare the responses to a question asking for consumers' probabilistic beliefs about future inflation, to those from a simpler one asking for the expected minimum, maximum, and most likely inflation rate over the short term. I find that response behavior varies strongly with framing. Simpler wording such as 'prices in general' and a less restrictive format lead to higher mean expected inflation, on average. While simpler wording increases individual uncertainty derived from the subjective histograms, asking for minimum, maximum and mode leads to lower uncertainty about expected inflation. |
| Keywords: | probabilistic expectations, survey design, household inflation expectations |
| JEL: | C83 D84 E31 |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:zewdip:300015&r= |
| By: | Chen, Shuai; Powdthavee, Nattavudh; Wiese, Juliane |
| Abstract: | We study whether the model minority stereotype about Asian Americans (e.g., hard-working, intelligent) reduces people's attention to inequality that adversely affects Asians. In a nationally representative US sample (N=3, 257), we find that around 90% of the participants either moderately or strongly believe that Asians work harder and are more economically successful compared to other ethnic minorities. We then demonstrate that an increase in the model minority belief has a dose-response relationship with people's tendency to overestimate incomes for Asians but not for Whites and Blacks. In a basic cognitive task, people are more likely to see an equal distribution of resources between Asians and people of other races when Asians have less than others by design. Although there is little evidence that a marginal increase in the model minority belief significantly reduces people's attention to inequality that adversely affects Asians in a pattern detection hiring task, we find that people who hold a strong model minority stereotype are only more likely to naturalistically point out unfair hiring practices when Whites are discriminated against. Our results offer new insights into the possible mechanisms behind why many Americans are relatively more apathetic toward Asians' unfair treatment and negative experiences compared to those of other races. |
| Keywords: | Asian Americans, model minority, stereotype, inequality, attention, redistribution |
| JEL: | D63 D91 J15 |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:glodps:1449&r= |
| By: | Aguirre De Mora, Florencia; Roseth, Benjamin; Santamaria, Julieth |
| Abstract: | Two seemingly contradictory trends have accompanied the rise of digital transformation: a demand for better and more customized services, which require the use of personal data, and a concern for data protection. How do we reconcile these divergent trends? The answer to this question may influence not only the design of personalized services but also the strategies for their widespread adoption. This study explores how to mitigate the impact of citizens reluctance to share data on the uptake of personalized public services. Through a survey experiment, we offered two hypothetical personalized services: one educational service (a scholarship) and one health-related service (a checkup). Each respondent was randomly assigned to one of three possible intervention groups, receiving different types of information: (i) a summary outlining the service benefits; (ii) details on benefits with a data usage disclosure; and (iii) a data usage disclosure. The findings reveal that citizens exhibit a strong baseline interest in personalized services. However, a requirement to share personal data had an adverse impact on interest in both the educational and health-related services, resulting in declines of 2.6 to 3.0 percentage points. There are indications that the decrease in interest may be more pronounced for the health service. Providing detailed service descriptions increased interest by 4.5 and 5.5 percentage points for education and health services, respectively. This suggests that offering information about the benefits of the service can offset concerns about data privacy. These effects remained consistent among different population groups. |
| Keywords: | data protection;personal data;government services;citizen preferences |
| JEL: | D78 D90 H41 H83 |
| Date: | 2024–05 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:idb:brikps:13565&r= |
| By: | Ahrenshop, Mats |
| Abstract: | Earmarking taxes for specific expenditure categories is thought to be a crucial factor in the development of the early modern European fiscal states and remains a widespread yet fiscally rigid and often inefficient policy tool. I explore a decidedly political logic to the puzzling prevalence of tax earmarking. In this paper, I test an initial micro-behavioural condition for this political logic of earmarking: that general fund taxation may produce more political mobilisation than earmarking would, threatening the political survival of governments in lowcapacity states. I outline two interrelated mechanisms for this expectation: citizens’ discontent with the absence of government-provided information aboutthe revenue uses of taxpayers’ money and the anticipation of increased government discretion over spending policy. I design an online survey experiment with 874 citizens in Ghana to test these implications. The experiment randomly varies different proposals of how to use increased tax revenue from a recent government fiscal capacity programme and measures citizens’ intentions to engage politically. The results indicate that earmarking does not produce greater bottom-up accountability pressures than general fund taxation. |
| Keywords: | Finance, Politics and Power, |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:idq:ictduk:18406&r= |
| By: | Ardanaz, Martín; Hübscher, Evelyne; Keefer, Philip; Sattler, Thomas |
| Abstract: | Though governments regularly implement fiscal adjustments to avert crisis, voter attitudes toward competing adjustment strategies are still poorly understood. A conjoint experiment with 8, 000 survey respondents in Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, and Peru confirms that individuals prefer spending- to tax-based adjustments in general. However, preferences change dramatically depending on which specific tax and spending adjustments are included and on individuals' personal characteristics. Consistent with their broad preferences for spending- over tax-based adjustments, respondents oppose increases in the personal income tax and support public employment cuts. However, they support or are indifferent towards higher corporate income or value-added taxes and they oppose cuts in social assistance. Preferences for fiscal adjustment also depend on voter characteristics that are unrelated to their pecuniary interests. Ideology, social beliefs, and trust in government significantly influence their preferences for tax- or spending-based adjustments in general and for the specific composition of those adjustments. |
| Keywords: | Fiscal Adjustment;taxes;public expenditures;conjoint experiment |
| JEL: | D72 E62 H62 |
| Date: | 2024–04 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:idb:brikps:13473&r= |
| By: | Steven Wilkins Reeves; Shane Lubold; Arun G. Chandrasekhar; Tyler H. McCormick |
| Abstract: | The stable unit treatment value assumption states that the outcome of an individual is not affected by the treatment statuses of others, however in many real world applications, treatments can have an effect on many others beyond the immediately treated. Interference can generically be thought of as mediated through some network structure. In many empirically relevant situations however, complete network data (required to adjust for these spillover effects) are too costly or logistically infeasible to collect. Partially or indirectly observed network data (e.g., subsamples, aggregated relational data (ARD), egocentric sampling, or respondent-driven sampling) reduce the logistical and financial burden of collecting network data, but the statistical properties of treatment effect adjustments from these design strategies are only beginning to be explored. In this paper, we present a framework for the estimation and inference of treatment effect adjustments using partial network data through the lens of structural causal models. We also illustrate procedures to assign treatments using only partial network data, with the goal of either minimizing estimator variance or optimally seeding. We derive single network asymptotic results applicable to a variety of choices for an underlying graph model. We validate our approach using simulated experiments on observed graphs with applications to information diffusion in India and Malawi. |
| Date: | 2024–06 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:arx:papers:2406.11940&r= |
| By: | Bertelli, Olivia; Calvo, Thomas; Lavallée, Emmanuelle; Mercier, Marion; Mesplé-Somps, Sandrine |
| Abstract: | Gender-based violence (GBV) is widespread across the world. While the majority of the literature focuses on women as the victims of GBV, this paper studies men’s justifications for and perpetration of GBV in Mali, one of the countries with the highest GBV prevalence rates in the world. We elicit the prevalence rates of eight GBV-related opinions and behaviors among a representative sample of 1, 200 men in Bamako, the capital city. We administer a list experiment and a set of direct questions to estimate response bias. The list experiment prevalence rates show that a large portion of the male population justifies GBV: nearly one in two supports female genital mutilation and intimate partner violence, and one in four has physically hit an adult woman. Moreover, several questions show significant response biases when asked with the standard direct question technique. Support for female genital mutilation is overestimated, indicating that it is less common than generally thought. Conversely, justification for intimate partner violence is underestimated, likely due to increased societal pressure against it in Mali. These biases vary little with respondent characteristics, although men with a secondary education level support all forms of GBV analyzed in this study the least. Comparing our results with those from other contexts suggests that response bias could be shaped by the legal framework addressing GBV and that people’s perceptions of which dimensions are “socially acceptable” influence their own responses to standard direct questions, emphasizing the need to exercise caution with regard to the use of data collected via this survey technique. |
| Keywords: | Gender-based violence, Attitudes, List Experiment, response bias, Mali |
| Date: | 2024–06 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cpm:docweb:2406&r= |
| By: | Green, Seth Ariel (Code Ocean) |
| Abstract: | This article provides five observations on the state of contact hypothesis research five years after the publication of The Contact Hypothesis Re-evaluated. First, we have seen a welcome proliferation of rigorous field experiments, which often find much more conflicting results than the theory’s proponents might predict. Second, to explain those conflicting results, I propose a more nuanced theory of prejudice. Third, light touch interventions are appropriate for light prejudices. Fourth, assimilation is an undertheorized moderator of contact. Fifth, I renew our previous paper’s call for systematic tests of Gordon Allport’s moderating conditions: shared goals, cooperation, equal status, and institutional support. |
| Date: | 2024–06–27 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:osf:socarx:8mcb5&r= |
| By: | Junyi Shen (Research Institute of Economics and Business Administration, Kobe University, JAPAN and School of Economics, Shanghai University, CHINA); Ken-Ichi Shimomura (College of Asia Pacific Studies, Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University and Research Institute of Economics and Business Administration, Kobe University, JAPAN) |
| Abstract: | The population decline associated with Japan's declining birth rate will have many effects on the Japanese economy and society. Currently, the Japanese government plans to implement a series of childbirth support measures to increase the birth rate. In this study, we conduct a stated-choice experiment using an online questionnaire survey to elicit Japanese women's preferences for childbirth support measures such as childbirth lump-sum payment, child medical expenses subsidy, common supermarket discount card issued after childbirth, childcare fee exemption, preferential housing treatment, children's education expense subsidy, and childcare leave periods for couples. Most of these measures were found to significantly affect respondents' preferences in the full-sample estimation. Meanwhile, individuals' heterogeneities in preferences for childbirth support measures were also observed using different subsamples based on respondents' age, number of children, overall education level, employment status, and annual household income. |
| Keywords: | Childbirth support measures; Preference; Stated-choice experiment; Conditional Logit; Japan |
| Date: | 2024–06 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:kob:dpaper:dp2024-19&r= |
| By: | J. David Brown; Misty L. Heggeness |
| Abstract: | Several small-sample studies have predicted that a citizenship question in the 2020 Census would cause a large drop in self-response rates. In contrast, minimal effects were found in Poehler et al.’s (2020) analysis of the 2019 Census Test randomized controlled trial (RCT). We reconcile these findings by analyzing associations between characteristics about the addresses in the 2019 Census Test and their response behavior by linking to independently constructed administrative data. We find significant heterogeneity in sensitivity to the citizenship question among households containing Hispanics, naturalized citizens, and noncitizens. Response drops the most for households containing noncitizens ineligible for a Social Security number (SSN). It falls more for households with Latin American-born immigrants than those with immigrants from other countries. Response drops less for households with U.S.-born Hispanics than households with noncitizens from Latin America. Reductions in responsiveness occur not only through lower unit self-response rates, but also by increased household roster omissions and internet break-offs. The inclusion of a citizenship question increases the undercount of households with noncitizens. Households with noncitizens also have much higher citizenship question item nonresponse rates than those only containing citizens. The use of tract-level characteristics and significant heterogeneity among Hispanics, the foreign-born, and noncitizens help explain why the effects found by Poehler et al. were so small. Linking administrative microdata with the RCT data expands what we can learn from the RCT. |
| Keywords: | Administrative records, noncitizen coverage, sensitive questions, survey error |
| Date: | 2024–06 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cen:wpaper:24-31&r= |
| By: | William L. Allen; Matthew D. Bird; Luisa Feline Freier; Isabel Ruiz; Carlos Vargas-Silva |
| Abstract: | Why do citizens hold different migration policy preferences? US and European evidence suggests political trust matters by raising support for more open policies, attenuating concerns about costs and strengthening beliefs in governments’ implementation abilities. However, this may not hold in countries with limited state capacity. Instead, we argue interpersonal trust placed in policy beneficiaries matters more as citizens circumvent weaker institutions. We test this using conjoint experiments in Colombia and Peru—low-capacity countries experiencing large inflows of forcibly-displaced Venezuelans—that vary aspects of migration policies. Political trust selectively moderates preferences on migrants’ employment rights and numerical limits, contributing novel evidence of boundary conditions for this form of trust. By contrast, greater interpersonal trust is linked to more open preferences across all tested domains. Our results cast doubt on the importance of political trust for migration preferences in contexts of limited state capacity, instead highlighting its partial substitution by interpersonal trust. |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:not:notnic:2024-09&r= |
| By: | Verpoorten, Marijke; Stoop, Nik |
| Abstract: | Can job creation help decrease violence in conflict-affected regions? We study this question in the Democratic Republic of Congo, where the construction of three hydropower stations in North-Kivu generated nearly 60, 000 one-month labor contracts for residents of the hosting chiefdoms. To quantify the impact on violence, we analyze close to 9, 000 conflict events from 2009 to 2022 across 21 chiefdoms in North-Kivu, comparing trends and patterns of violence between ‘treated’ and ‘comparison’ chiefdoms. Our findings indicate that the labor-intensive construction program significantly reduced violence, with effects lasting up to 18 months after program end. We observe a 93% decline in the number of monthly conflict events in chiefdoms where the program was implemented. The reduction in violence was most pronounced in chiefdoms with the highest per capita wage injection. In the most remote, rebel-controlled chiefdom, the reduction in violence against civilians was preceded by a temporary surge in battles between the military and armed groups, likely representing the 'clear' phase of the 'clear, hold, build' counterinsurgency strategy. |
| Keywords: | DR Congo, violence, job creation |
| Date: | 2024–06 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iob:apbrfs:2024003&r= |
| By: | Derksen, Laura (University of Toronto); Kerwin, Jason (University of Minnesota); Reynoso, Natalia Ordaz (Bocconi University); Sterck, Olivier (University of Oxford) |
| Abstract: | We show that ordinary appointments can act as effective substitutes for hard commitment devices and increase demand for a critical healthcare service, particularly among those with self-control problems. We show this using an experiment that randomly offered HIV testing appointments and hard commitment devices to high-risk men in Malawi. Appointments more than double testing rates, with effects concentrated among those who demand commitment. In contrast, most men who take up hard commitments lose their investments. Appointments overcome commitment problems without the potential drawback of commitment failure, and have the potential to increase demand for healthcare in the developing world. |
| Keywords: | appointments, commitment devices, self-control, health, HIV |
| JEL: | D81 I15 O12 |
| Date: | 2024–06 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iza:izadps:dp17070&r= |
| By: | Lucas Coffman (Boston College); Clayton R. Featherstone (Baylor University); Judd B. Kessler (The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania) |
| Abstract: | Nudge-style interventions are popular but are often criticized for being atheoretical. We present a model of information nudges (i.e., interventions that provide useful but imperfect information about the utility of taking an action) based on Bayesian updating in a setting of binary choice. The model makes two main predictions: One, the probability of a positive treatment effect should be increasing in the baseline take-up rate. Two, across studies, as baseline rates increase from 0 to 1, the expected treatment effect has a "down–up–down" shape. A surprising corollary of both predictions is that treatment effects are expected to be negative for low baseline rates. We use reduced-form and structural methods to conduct a meta-analysis of 75 information nudges and corroborate both predictions. Both the meta-analysis and a novel survey of nudge experts suggest the intuition in the model is not currently known. Finally, we provide guidance for practitioners about the environments in which information nudges will positively affect a desired behavior and those in which they may backfire. |
| Keywords: | nudges, interventions, Bayesian updating |
| JEL: | C90 D04 |
| Date: | 2024–07–01 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:boc:bocoec:1077&r= |
| By: | Abate, Gashaw T.; Bernard, Tanguy; Bulte, Erwin; Miguel, Jérémy Do Nascimento; Sadoulet, Elisabeth |
| Abstract: | When quality attributes of a product are not directly observable, third-party certification (TPC) enables buyers to purchase the quality they are most interested in and reward sellers accordingly. Beyond product characteristics, buyers’ use of TPC services also depends on market conditions. We study the introduction of TPC in typical smallholder-based agriculture value chains of low-income countries, where traders must aggregate products from many small-scale producers before selling in bulk to downstream processors, and where introduction of TPC services has oftentimes failed. We develop a theoretical model identifying how different market conditions affect traders’ choice to purchase quality-certified output from farmers. Using a purposefully designed lab-in-the-field experiment with rural wheat traders in Ethiopia, we find mixed support for the model’s prediction: traders’ willingness to specialize in certified output does increase with the share of certified wheat in the market, and this effect is stronger in larger markets. It, however, does not decrease with the quality of uncertified wheat in the market. We further analyze conditions where traders deviate from the theoretically optimal behavior and discuss implications for future research and public policies seeking to promote TPC in smallholder-based food value-chains. |
| Keywords: | agriculture; certification; markets; quality; smallholders; Africa; Eastern Africa; Ethiopia |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:ifprid:2258&r= |
| By: | Duryea, Suzanne; Millán-Quijano, Jaime; Morrison, Judith; Ovideo Gil, Yanira |
| Abstract: | In this paper, we document de facto, implicit, and explicit racial biases within the public employment service in Colombia. By combining administrative data about job seekers and job openings with direct surveys to job counselors, including a Race Implicit Association Test, we compute different types of racial bias. We find that while job counselors do not self-report biased attitudes against Afro-descendant individuals, the majority exhibit high levels of implicit bias, which also correlates strongly with observed lower referral rates of Afro-descendants to job openings. In addition, we randomly provide information to job counselors about their implicit bias and test if this information changes their referral behavior. While we demonstrate that the implicit bias of counselors is a major contributor to racial gaps in labor outcomes, we do not find that providing feedback on this unconscious bias changes their referral behavior. |
| Keywords: | Implicit stereotypes;labor market discrimination;developing countries;public employment services;Afro-descendant individuals |
| JEL: | J15 J21 J71 |
| Date: | 2024–03 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:idb:brikps:13460&r= |
| By: | Kaur, S.; Pollitt, M. G. |
| Abstract: | The policy of free electricity since 1997 is hugely popular with farmers in Punjab who are its biggest beneficiaries. Successive Governments have either lacked the courage or willingness to pursue market oriented electricity sector reforms even though the adverse con-sequences are increasingly visible. Over the past few decades, experts have expressed concern over the rapidly receding level of the water table and forecast of desertification, as well as the financial burden on the electricity distribution utility and government. Withdrawing free electricity and charging a price for electricity is a huge challenge. This research aims to estimate willingness to pay (WTP) for electricity and consider preferences for an annual free electricity limit with reward for meter installation and a novel incentive-penalty scheme designed to reward low consumption and discourage over-consumption. A discrete choice experiment assuming random probit and multinomial logit choice behaviour model is deployed to estimate the model parameters. We find that more than 82% of respondents are willing to accept an entitlement to a free electricity limit – with a reward for consuming less than this – rather than the current policy of free and unmetered electricity. We also find that the WTP for electricity increases with higher entitlements. Considering the WTP alone, the results suggest that increasing the electricity price can be acceptable to farmers. Further research is needed to develop a pricing strategy that considers the inter-relatedness between electricity entitlement, saving incentive and price. |
| Keywords: | Agriculture, energy water nexus, entitlement, incentive, groundwater, irrigation, electricity consumption, paddy, subsidy, electricity pricing, discrete choice, Punjab |
| JEL: | O13 Q1 Q4 Q5 Q12 Q24 Q25 Q28 Q48 Q57 |
| Date: | 2024–06–18 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cam:camdae:2434&r= |