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on Experimental Economics |
| By: | Ergo Themas; Maryna Tverdostup |
| Abstract: | Purchasing a car is one of the decisions that may have a sizeable negative impact on an individual or family budget if all costs associated with owning a car are not properly considered. With car leasing being easily accessible, car buyers may underestimate all the costs beyond the leasing payments when choosing a car and select a vehicle above their own budget. This paper conducts an online field experiment in a specially designed bot in the Facebook Messenger application in Estonia, to investigate whether disclosing the complete personalized total cost of ownership (TCO) leads to a better calibrated choice of cars for a test drive. The study documents that introducing better information into real-life car choices does not have a positive effect on the correspondence between cost of car and individual budget. Quite the opposite, subjects deviate from their budget even more when a personalized TCO (for one month or five years) is disclosed, and in particular, subjects generally tend to choose cars above their budget. While previous studies on car buyer behaviour with different cost information have been carried out as lab experiments with hypothetical car buyers, our study contributes to the literature by conducting a field experiment with real car buyers, finding a substantial gap with the results obtained in the lab setting. |
| Keywords: | Consumer behaviour; Online field experiment; Rational decision-making; Total cost of ownership |
| Date: | 2021 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:mtk:febawb:132&r= |
| By: | Islam, Marco (Department of Economics, Lund University) |
| Abstract: | How do people assess risks associated with a hedonic but dangerous activity? I conduct a longitudinal field experiment (N=434) exploiting the conditions of the COVID-19 pandemic to investigate whether monetary incentives induce people to motivate their risk assessments. Each participant receives a café voucher with a random value: treated participants receive a 10EUR voucher, and the control group a 1.50EUR voucher. The results show that subjects who receive a high incentive not only visit cafés more often but also reduce their risk assessment relative to subjects with a low incentive. Importantly, the assessment updating happens in anticipation of the visit, suggesting that it justifies a risky activity. This finding is inconsistent with the standard notion of Bayesian updating but consistent with motivated reasoning. It is robust to different risk measures (incentivized and non-incentivized) and does not lend support for alternative explanations, such as visits at less busy times or additional information acquisition. The data further suggests that the formation of motivated risk assessments is supported by selective recall of previous assessments. Treated subjects systematically underestimate former assessments relative to subjects of the control group. |
| Keywords: | Risk Assessment; Motivated Reasoning; Self-Deception; Field Experiment |
| JEL: | C93 D03 D91 |
| Date: | 2021–10–28 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hhs:lunewp:2021_012&r= |
| By: | Yann Raineau; Éric GIRAUD-HÉRAUD |
| Abstract: | Nudges, known to bring about behavioral change, are today a controversial public policy tool. Grievances most often concern their ephemeral scope or legitimacy, but these complaints are rarely based on a detailed understanding of how they work, which considerably limits their critical analysis. In this paper, we mobilize Akerlof’s (1997) model of social distance to better understand the effectiveness of informational nudges. We then show how implicit cognitive biases remain the main source of performance, leading us to renewed ethical considerations. We illustrate our conjectures with a randomized controlled trial in the context of pesticide use in agriculture. |
| Keywords: | nudges, RCT, farmer behavior, social norms, ethics of public interventions |
| JEL: | C93 D91 Q15 |
| Date: | 2021 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:grt:bdxewp:2021-22&r= |
| By: | Zvonimir Bašic (Max Planck Institute for Research on Collective Goods); Parampreet C. Bindra (University of Innsbruck); Daniela Glätzle-Rützler (University of Innsbruck); Angelo Romano (Max Planck Institute for Research on Collective Goods); Matthias Sutter (Max Planck Institute for Research on Collective Goods, University of Cologne, University of Innsbruck, IZA Bonn, and CESifo Munich); Claudia Zoller (Max Planck Institute for Research on Collective Goods) |
| Abstract: | Understanding the roots of human cooperation among strangers is of great importance for solving pressing social dilemmas and maintening public goods in human societies. We study the development of cooperation in 929 young children, aged 3 to 6. In a unified experimental framework, we examine which of three fundamental pillars of human cooperation – direct and indirect reciprocity as well as third-party punishment – emerges earliest as an effective means to increase cooperation in a repeated prisoner’s dilemma game. We find that third-party punishment exhibits a strikingly positive effect on cooperation rates by doubling them in comparison to a control condition. It promotes cooperative behavior even before punishment of defectors is applied. Children also engage in reciprocating others, showing that reciprocity strategies are already prevalent at a very young age. However, direct and indirect reciprocity treatments do not increase overall cooperation rates, as young children fail to anticipate the benefits of reputation building. We also show that the cognitive skills of children and the socioeconomic background of parents play a vital role in the early development of human cooperation. |
| Keywords: | Cooperation, reciprocity, third-party punishment, reputation, children, parents, cognitive abilities, socioeconomic status, prisoner’s dilemma game, experiment |
| JEL: | C91 C93 D01 D91 H41 |
| Date: | 2021–06–11 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:mpg:wpaper:2021_14&r= |
| By: | Kenju Kamei; Hajime Kobayashi; Tiffany Tsz Kwan Tse |
| Abstract: | The observability of partners’ past play is known to theoretically improve cooperation in an infinitely repeated prisoner’s dilemma game under random matching. This paper presents evidence from an incentivized experiment that reputational information per se may not improve cooperation. A structural estimation suggests that a certain percentage of players act according to the “Always Defect” strategy, whether or not the reputational information is available. The remaining players adopt available cooperative strategies: specifically, the tit-for-tat strategy when reputational information is not available, and a strategy that conditions on the matched partner’s past play when reputational information is available. |
| Date: | 2021–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:dpr:wpaper:1145&r= |
| By: | Tom Coupé (University of Canterbury); W. Robert Reed (University of Canterbury); Christian Zimmerman |
| Abstract: | Are users of a bibliographic database interested in learning about replications? Can we motivate them to learn? To answer these questions, we performed an experiment on a RePEc (Research Papers in Economics) website: Using randomized stratification, we allocated 324 replications and their corresponding original studies to clusters; we then drew from those clusters to select treatment and control groups. We added brightly colored tabs to the relevant webpages to alert visitors to the existence of a replication study or to the original study of a replication. We monitored traffic over three phases lasting several months: a) no treatment, b) treatment on one group, c) treatment on both groups. We find a statistically significant increase in visits to replication pages, but the effect is small: Click-throughs to the replications occurred only 1% to 1.6% of the time. |
| Keywords: | Replications, RePEc, Experiment, Online Research Repository, Webpages, Click-throughs |
| JEL: | A11 B41 Z00 |
| Date: | 2021–10–01 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cbt:econwp:21/09&r= |
| By: | Silvia Angerer (UMIT – Private University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology); E. Glenn Dutcher (Ohio University); Daniela Glätzle-Rützler (University of Innsbruck); Philipp Lergetporer (Ohio University); Matthias Sutter (Max Planck Institute for Research on Collective Goods, University of Cologne, University of Innsbruck, IZA, and CESifo) |
| Abstract: | Large, macroeconomic shocks in the past have been shown to influence economic decisions in the present. We study in an experiment with 743 subjects whether small-scale, seemingly negligible, events also affect the formation of risk preferences. In line with a reinforcement learning model, we find that subjects who won a random lottery took significantly more risk in a second lottery almost a year later. The same pattern emerges in another experiment with 136 subjects where the second lottery was played more than three years after the first lottery. So, small-scale, random, events affect the formation of risk preferences significantly. |
| Keywords: | Reinforcement learning, risk preferences, preference formation, experiment |
| JEL: | C91 D01 D83 |
| Date: | 2021–08–23 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:mpg:wpaper:2021_16&r= |
| By: | Fritz Schiltz; Kristof De Witte |
| Abstract: | Sugary drinks in schools have been demonized for their potential long-term contribution to rising obesity rates. Surprisingly, there is only little evidence on the immediate effects of sugary drinks in schools. This paper provides experimental evidence on the in-class effects of sugary drinks on behavior and student achievement. We randomly assigned 462 preschool children to receive sugary drinks or artificially sweetened drinks and collected data before and after consumption. Our findings suggest that the consumption of one sugary drink induces an initial `relaxing' effect for boys, before making them more restless. Girls' behavior is not significantly affected. We find a negative effect on student achievement for boys and a positive effect for girls. We show the robustness of the results across two field experiments. |
| Date: | 2021–10–05 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ete:leerwp:681648&r= |
| By: | Resnjanskij, Sven; Ruhose, Jens; Wiederhold, Simon; Wößmann, Ludger |
| JEL: | I24 |
| Date: | 2021 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:vfsc21:242341&r= |
| By: | Tom Coupé; W. Robert Reed; Christian Zimmermann |
| Abstract: | Are users of a bibliographic database interested in learning about replications? Can we motivate them to learn? To answer these questions, we performed an experiment on a RePEc (Research Papers in Economics) website: Using randomized stratification, we allocated 324 replications and their corresponding original studies to clusters; we then drew from those clusters to select treatment and control groups. We added brightly colored tabs to the relevant webpages to alert visitors to the existence of a replication study or to the original study of a replication. We monitored traffic over three phases lasting several months: a) no treatment, b) treatment on one group, c) treatment on both groups. We find a statistically significant increase in visits to replication pages, but the effect is small: Click-throughs to the replications occurred only 1% to 1.6% of the time. |
| Keywords: | Replications; RePEc; Experiment; Online Research Repository; Webpages; Click-throughs |
| JEL: | A11 B41 Z0 |
| Date: | 2021–10–28 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fip:fedlwp:93317&r= |
| By: | Christoph Engel (Max Planck Institute for Research on Collective Goods); Klaus Heine (Erasmus University Rotterdam (EUR), Erasmus School of Law); Shaheen Naseer (Lahore School of Economics) |
| Abstract: | Often, religion, law and tradition co-evolve. Religious precepts shape social practice, which translates into law. Yet this harmony is not universal. The Sharia guarantees daughters their share in the family estate. Yet in Pakistan, this rule clashes with tradition. While the country was jointly governed with (mainly Hindu) India, it had been customary that the entire estate goes to the eldest son. Combining a survey with a lab in the field experiment, we show that this is still the descriptive and the injunctive norm. Yet participants have a strong preference for the conflict to be dissolved by legislative intervention. |
| Keywords: | religious norm, legal rule, descriptive and injunctive social norm, inheritance, gender discrimination, Sharia, experiment |
| JEL: | C91 C93 D01 D15 D31 D63 J16 K00 O12 O53 R22 |
| Date: | 2021–05–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:mpg:wpaper:2021_13&r= |
| By: | Pascale Bazoche; Nicolas Guinet; Sylvaine Poret; Sabrina Teyssier |
| Abstract: | A widespread transition towards diets based on plant proteins as substitutes for animal proteins would contribute to food system sustainability. Such changes in consumer food choices can be fostered by public policy. We conducted an online experiment to test whether providing consumers with information regarding the negative consequences of meat consumption on the environment or health increases the substitution of animal-based proteins with plant-based proteins. The consumers had to make three meal selections, the first without exposure to information and the latter two after exposure to environmental or health information. One group of consumers served as the control and received no information. The results show that half of the consumers chose meals with animal proteins in all three cases. The information intervention had a limited impact on the average consumer. However, a latent class analysis shows that the information intervention impacted a sub-sample of the consumers. Information policy does not appear to be sufficient for altering consumer behaviour regarding the consumption of animal proteins. |
| Keywords: | Experiment, information, food consumption, alternative proteins, environment,health. |
| JEL: | C93 D12 Q01 |
| Date: | 2021 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:rae:wpaper:202107&r= |
| By: | Sylvain Chassang (Princeton University and NBER); Lucia Del Carpio (INSEAD); Samuel Kapon (New York University) |
| Abstract: | Limits on a government’s capacity to enforce laws can result in multiple equilibria. If most agents comply, limited enforcement is sufficient to dissuade isolated agents from misbehaving. If most agents do not comply, overstretched enforcement capacity has a minimal impact on behavior. We study the extent to which divide-and-conquer enforcement strategies can help select a high compliance equilibrium in the presence of realistic compliance frictions. We study the role of information about the compliance of others both in theory and in lab experiments. As the number of agents gets large, theory indicates that providing information or not is irrelevant in equilibrium. In contrast, providing individualized information has a first order impact in experimental play by increasing convergence to equilibrium.This illustrates the value of out-of-equilibrium information design. |
| JEL: | C72 C73 C92 D73 D82 D86 H26 |
| Date: | 2020–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pri:cepsud:278&r= |
| By: | Eugen Dimant; Tobias Gesche |
| Abstract: | The enforcement of social norms is the fabric of a functioning society. Through the lens of mul-tiple studies using different methodologies (a behavioral experiment and a vignette experiment in Study 1, as well as a norm elicitation experiment in Study 2), we examine how motives for lying and norm perceptions steer norm enforcement. Pursuing a pre-registered three-part data collection effort, our study investigates the extent to which norm breaches are sanctioned, how norm-nudges affect punishment behavior, and how enforcement links to norm perceptions. Using a representative sample of U.S. participants, we provide robust evidence that norm-enforcement is not only sensitive to the magnitude of the observed transgression (= size of the lie) but also to the consequence of the transgression (= whether the lie remedies or creates payoff inequalities). We also find that norm enforcers are sensitive to different norm-nudges that convey social in-formation about actual lying behavior or its social disapproval. Importantly, these results hold both in the behavioral experiment and in an add-on vignette study that confirm the robustness of our findings in the context of whistleblowing. To explain the punishment patterns of the behavioral experiment in Study 1, we subsequently examine how norms are perceived across dif-ferent transgressions and how norm-nudges change these perceptions. We find that social norm perceptions are malleable: norm-nudges are most effective when preexisting norms are vague. Importantly, we find that punishment patterns in the first experiment closely follow these norm perceptions. With that, our findings suggest that norm enforcement can be nudged successfully. |
| Keywords: | lying, norm-nudges, nudging, punishment, social norms |
| JEL: | B41 D01 D90 |
| Date: | 2021 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ces:ceswps:_9385&r= |
| By: | Silvia Angerer (UMIT – Private University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology); Jana Bolvashenkova (ifo Institute at the University of Munich); Daniela Glätzle-Rützler (University of Innsbruck); Philipp Lergetporer (Ohio University); Matthias Sutter (Max Planck Institute for Research on Collective Goods, University of Cologne, University of Innsbruck, IZA, and CESifo) |
| Abstract: | We present direct evidence on the link between children’s patience and educational-track choices years later. Combining an incentivized patience measure of 493 primary-school children with their high-school track choices taken at least three years later at the end of middle school, we find that patience significantly predicts choosing an academic track. This relationship remains robust after controlling for a rich set of covariates, such as family background, school-class fixed effects, risk preferences, and cognitive abilities, and is not driven by sample attrition. Accounting for middle-school GPA as a potential mediating factor suggests a direct link between patience and educational-track choice. |
| Keywords: | patience, education, school track choice, children, lab-in-the-field experiment |
| JEL: | C91 D90 I21 J2 |
| Date: | 2021–05–21 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:mpg:wpaper:2021_12&r= |
| By: | Yann Raineau; Éric Giraud-Héraud; Sébastien Lecocq; Stéphanie Pérès; Alexandre Pons; Sophie Tempère |
| Abstract: | According to the latest studies, the demand for organic food is more often driven by health than by environmental considerations. It may therefore seem surprising to observe certain industries allowing organic products to be challenged by products that claim health benefits more directly. The question thus arises as to the real threat to the organic market posed by "healthy" products, and hence the impact on the ecological transition of agricultural practices brought about by organic specifications. In this paper, we examine the reality of this threat, taking it to the extreme situation of a product today classified as harmful, yet for which sanitary considerations have been recently conveyed on markets, namely wines without sulfites, considering the competition they can exert on organic wines. Through an experimental market based on a tasting of Bordeaux wines specifically produced for the purpose of the experiment, conducted at two-year intervals and involving a large sample of over four hundred consumers, we observe the significance of the health demand among wine consumers, which increases as the niche of organic wine buyers is considered. We also note that this niche asymmetrically sanctions the presence of sulfites in organic wines, without applying the same principles to conventional wines, a threat that could lead to a certain decline in interest once these products are required to reveal their composition, as is the case for the majority of processed products. |
| Keywords: | experimental auctions, food labels, willingness to pay, sustainable wines, eco-friendly food, consumer demand |
| JEL: | C91 L15 Q11 D44 |
| Date: | 2021 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:grt:bdxewp:2021-21&r= |
| By: | Francesco Capozza (Erasmus University Rotterdam, Tinbergen Institute); Ingar Haaland (University of Bergen and CESifo); Christopher Roth (University of Cologne, ECONtribute, briq, CESifo, CEPR, CAGE Warwick); Johannes Wohlfart (Department of Economics and CEBI, University of Copenhagen, CESifo, Danish Finance Institute) |
| Abstract: | We review the emerging literature on information acquisition in field settings. We first document an increase in studies on information acquisition and review relevant studies in different subfields of economics, including macroeconomics, political economy, labor economics, health economics, and finance. We next provide an overview of empirical tech-niques to measure information acquisition and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different methods. We then discuss how one can design studies to test the predictions of different theories of information acquisition. We conclude by highlighting possible directions for future research. |
| Keywords: | Information acquisition, Willingness to pay, Click data, Experimental Design, Beliefs, Surveys |
| JEL: | C90 D83 D91 |
| Date: | 2021–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ajk:ajkdps:124&r= |
| By: | Francesco Capozza (Erasmus University Rotterdam); Ingar Haaland (University of Bergen and CESifo); Christopher Roth (University of Cologne); Johannes Wohlfart (Department of Economics and CEBI, University of Copenhagen) |
| Abstract: | We review the emerging literature on information acquisition in field settings. We first document an increase in studies on information acquisition and review relevant studies in different subfields of economics, including macroeconomics, political economy, labor economics, health economics, and finance. We next provide an overview of empirical techniques to measure information acquisition and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different methods. We then discuss how one can design studies to test the predictions of different theories of information acquisition. We conclude by highlighting possible directions for future research. |
| Keywords: | information acquisition, willingness to pay, click data, experimental design, beliefs, surveys |
| JEL: | C90 D83 D91 |
| Date: | 2021–10–28 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:kud:kucebi:2115&r= |
| By: | Sule Alan (European University Institute); Gozde Corekcioglu (Kadir Has University, Istanbul); Matthias Sutter (Max Planck Institute for Research on Collective Goods, University of Cologne, University of Innsbruck, IZA, and CESifo) |
| Abstract: | We evaluate the impact of a program aiming at improving the workplace climate in corporations. The program is implemented via a clustered randomized design and evaluated with respect to the prevalence of support networks, antisocial behavior, perceived relational atmosphere, and turnover rate. We find that professionals in treated corporations are less inclined to engage in toxic competition, exhibit higher reciprocity toward each other, report higher workplace satisfaction and a more collegial atmosphere. Treated firms have fewer socially isolated individuals and a lower employee turnover. The program's success in improving leader-subordinate relationships emerges as a likely mechanism to explain these results. |
| Keywords: | Workplace climate, relational dynamics, leadership quality, RCT |
| JEL: | C93 M14 M53 |
| Date: | 2021–09–14 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:mpg:wpaper:2021_17&r= |
| By: | Emeric Henry (ECON - Département d'économie (Sciences Po) - Sciences Po - Sciences Po - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, CEPR - Center for Economic Policy Research - CEPR); Sergei Guriev (ECON - Département d'économie (Sciences Po) - Sciences Po - Sciences Po - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique); Ekaterina Zhuravskaya (PSE - Paris School of Economics - ENPC - École des Ponts ParisTech - ENS Paris - École normale supérieure - Paris - PSL - Université Paris sciences et lettres - UP1 - Université Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - EHESS - École des hautes études en sciences sociales - INRAE - Institut National de Recherche pour l’Agriculture, l’Alimentation et l’Environnement) |
| Abstract: | Using an online randomized experiment in the context of the 2019 European elections campaign in France, we study how fact-checking affects sharing of false news on social media. We exposed over 4200 voting-age French to statements on the role of the EU made by the extreme right populist party Rassemblement National. A randomly selected subgroup of experiment participants was also presented with fact-checking of these statements; another subgroup was offered a choice whether to view the fact-checking or not. Then, all participants could choose whether to share the false statements on their Facebook pages. We show that: (i) both imposed and voluntary fact-checking reduced sharing of false statements by more than 25%; (ii) the size of the effect was similar between imposed and voluntary fact-checking; and (iii) each additional click required to share false statements reduced sharing by 75%. |
| Date: | 2020–06–01 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:wpaper:hal-03389187&r= |
| By: | Isabelle Salle |
| Abstract: | This paper compares alternative monetary policy regimes within a controlled lab environment, where groups of participants are tasked with repeatedly forecasting inflation in a simple macroeconomic model featuring only the dynamics of interest rates, inflation and inflation expectations. Average-inflation targeting can approximate the price path observed under price-level targeting in the presence of disinflationary shocks and enable subjects to coordinate on simple heuristics that reflect the concern of the central bank for past inflation gaps. However, this depends on the exact specification of the policy rule. In particular, if the central bank considers more than two lags, subjects fail to form expectations that are consistent with the monetary policy rule, which results in greater inflation volatility. Reinforcing communication around the target helps somewhat anchor long-run inflation expectations. |
| Keywords: | Inflation targets; Monetary policy communications; Monetary policy framework |
| JEL: | C92 E31 E52 E7 |
| Date: | 2021–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:bca:bocawp:21-53&r= |
| By: | Jonas Hjort (Columbia University [New York]); Vinayak Iyer (Columbia University [New York]); Golvine de Rochambeau (ECON - Département d'économie (Sciences Po) - Sciences Po - Sciences Po - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique) |
| Abstract: | Evidence suggests that firms in poor countries stagnate because they cannot access growth-conducive markets. We hypothesize that overlooked heterogeneity in marketing ability distorts market access. To investigate, we gave a random subset of Liberian firms vouchers for a week-long program that teaches how to sell to corporations, governments, and other large buyers. Firms that participate win about three times as many contracts, but only firms with access to the Internet benefit. We use a simple model and variation in online and offline demand to show evidence that this is because ICT dampens traditional information frictions, but not marketing barriers. |
| Date: | 2020–07–01 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:wpaper:hal-03389180&r= |
| By: | Lippens, Louis; Vermeiren, Siel; Baert, Stijn |
| Abstract: | Notwithstanding the improved integration of various minority groups in the workforce, unequal treatment in hiring still hinders many individuals' access to the labour market. To tackle this inaccessibility, it is essential to know which and to what extent minority groups face hiring discrimination. Past meta-studies have charted parts of the discrimination literature but permit only limited comparisons across minority groups. This meta-analysis synthesises a quasi-exhaustive register of correspondence experiments on hiring discrimination published between 2005 and 2020. Using a random-effects model, we computed pooled discrimination ratios concerning a total of ten discrimination grounds upon which unequal treatment in hiring is forbidden under United States federal or state law. First, we find that hiring discrimination against candidates with disabilities, older candidates, and less physically attractive candidates is at least equally severe as the unequal treatment of candidates with salient racial or ethnic characteristics. Remarkably, hiring discrimination against older applicants is even higher in Europe than in the United States. Furthermore, unequal treatment in hiring based on sexual orientation seems to be prompted mainly by signalling activism through an affiliation with an LGB+ rights organisation rather than same-sex orientation in itself. Last, hiring discrimination remains pervasive. Aside from a decrease in hiring discrimination based on race and national origin in Europe, we find no structural evidence of temporal changes in hiring discrimination based on the various other grounds within the scope of this review. |
| Keywords: | hiring discrimination,unequal treatment,meta-analysis,correspondence experiment,audit study |
| JEL: | J71 J23 J14 J15 J16 |
| Date: | 2021 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:glodps:972&r= |