|
on Microeconomic European Issues |
| By: | Claudio Barbieri (European Central Bank); Mattia Guerini (Università di Brescia and Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei); Mauro Napoletano (Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, GREDEG; Institute of Economics, Sant’Anna School of Advanced Studies and Sciences Po, OFCE) |
| Abstract: | We investigate the structure and evolution of credit growth across Italian provinces. Using an econometric approach based on Random Matrix Theory, we decompose regional credit dynamics into common and idiosyncratic components. We use a longitudinal dataset of credit at the provincial level (NUTS-3 regions) covering the period 2000–2020 and document substantial heterogeneity in the synchronization of credit growth across local economies. Our results suggest that, while aggregate credit growth is largely driven by a strong common component, substantial heterogeneity emerges across disaggregated credit categories. Household mortgage lending displays strong and persistent co-movement across provinces, whereas corporate mortgages and unsecured credit are characterized by higher dispersion and relatively weaker common dynamics. Regional divergence intensifies sharply between 2010 and 2014, coinciding with the European sovereign debt crisis, suggesting a fragmentation of local credit supply and demand. Importantly, divergence does not display any clear geographical pattern, underscoring the role of nonspatial factors in shaping regional credit dynamics. |
| Keywords: | Credit growth, Regional heterogeneity, Local credit markets, Synchronization |
| JEL: | C38 E51 G21 R12 |
| Date: | 2026–05 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fem:femwpa:2026.15 |
| By: | Arendt, Jacob (Rockwool Foundation Research Unit); Bolvig, Iben (The Danish Center for Social Science Research) |
| Abstract: | This study estimates the effects of an employment programme for disadvantaged unemployed individuals. The programme emphasized on-the-job training and contracting the unemployed for a few paid work hours as a stepping stone into the labour market. Evaluated through a randomised controlled trial, the programme was found to accelerate transitions into part-time work. Contrary to its intention, it permanently increased the share of participants receiving disability pensions among the most disadvantaged groups. To explain this finding, we suggest that training, while enhancing productivity for some, simultaneously provided information of employability used in the assessment of disability pension eligibility. |
| Keywords: | unemployed, active labour market policy, disability pension, immigration |
| JEL: | J14 J15 J64 D61 |
| Date: | 2026–05 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iza:izadps:dp18618 |
| By: | Louise Devos; François Rycx; Thomas Senterre; Mélanie Volral |
| Abstract: | Using matched employer–employee data on more than 62, 000 master’s graduates, this paper examines how gender differences in wage returns to fields of study vary by migration background and how educational specialisation contributes to the gender wage gap. We estimate wage regressions and apply a decomposition approach to separate sorting across fields from differences in pay within fields. Returns vary widely, with law, economics and management, and science yielding the highest returns, and women earning less than men within all fields, especially in high-paying ones. First-generation immigrants from developing countries obtain the lowest returns regardless of field of study, while second-generation immigrants approach but do not fully match natives. Fields of study explain a substantial share of gender wage inequality among natives and second-generation immigrants, whereas among first-generation immigrants broader wage disadvantages dominate. Results further vary with the number of parents originating from developing countries and with age at arrival. |
| Keywords: | gender wage gap; first- and second-generation immigrants; field of study; employer-employee data |
| JEL: | I24 I26 J16 J31 |
| Date: | 2026–05–12 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:sol:wpaper:2013/406634 |
| By: | Yasar, Serife |
| Abstract: | This paper studies how the introduction of a statutory minimum wage affects the gender wage gap within firms. I compare the residual gender wage gap in firms with and without minimum wage exposure before and after the reform using linked employer-employee data from Germany and employ a difference-in-differences approach in an event-study style with firm- and year-fixed effects. My results show that the introduction of the minimum wage led to a modest decline in the within-firm gender wage gap, with the clearest effects among incumbent workers and in the lower to middle part of the wage distribution. Effects differ across employment status, industries, and firm size. I find small wage changes in full-time jobs, a positive and significant post-reform effect for part-time workers, and no precise post-reform effects for marginal employment. These findings suggest that the effects of the minimum wage on the gender wage gap vary across worker groups and firm environments. A rich set of robustness checks, including alternative exposure thresholds and gender gap definitions, support my main findings. |
| Abstract: | Die vorliegende Publikation untersucht, wie sich die Einführung des gesetzlichen Mindestlohns auf den geschlechtsspezifischen Lohnunterschied innerhalb von Unternehmen auswirkt. Dafür wird die geschlechtsspezifische Lohnlücke in Unternehmen mit und ohne Mindestlohnbetroffenheit vor und nach der Reform verglichen. Datengrundlage sind administrative Lohndaten aus Deutschland. Methodisch wird ein Difference-in-Differences-Ansatz im Event-Study-Design mit Unternehmens- und Jahres-Fixeffekten angewendet. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Einführung des Mindestlohns zu einem moderaten Rückgang der innerbetrieblichen geschlechtsspezifischen Lohnlücke geführt hat, wobei die deutlichsten Effekte bei bestehenden Beschäftigten sowie im unteren bis mittleren Bereich der Lohnverteilung zu beobachten sind. Die Effekte unterscheiden sich nach Beschäftigungsstatus, Branchen und Unternehmensgröße. Es zeigen sich geringe Lohnveränderungen bei Vollzeitstellen, ein positiver und signifikanter Effekt nach der Reform für Teilzeitbeschäftigte sowie keine präzisen Effekte nach der Reform für geringfügig Beschäftigte. Diese Ergebnisse legen nahe, dass die Auswirkungen des Mindestlohns auf die geschlechtsspezifische Lohnlücke je nach Arbeitnehmergruppen und betrieblichen Rahmenbedingungen variieren. Eine umfangreiche Reihe von Robustheitsprüfungen, einschließlich alternativer Betroffenheit und Definitionen der Lohnlücke, stützt die Hauptergebnisse. |
| Keywords: | minimum wages, gender wage gap, within-firm wage inequality |
| JEL: | J23 J31 J38 J71 |
| Date: | 2026 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:rwirep:341091 |
| By: | Abrell, Jan; Zaklan, Aleksandar |
| Abstract: | We analyze the extent to which marginal producers in four European day-ahead electricity markets pass through short-run marginal cost, and its components fuel and carbon cost, to wholesale electricity prices. Parametric estimates show that pass-through is complete in France and Germany, and incomplete in the Iberian and Dutch markets, mainly driven by fuel cost. For carbon cost, pass-through is more heterogeneous, with the evidence suggesting over-shifting in Germany and the Netherlands. Semi-parametric estimates show that pass-through increases with demand. In sum, we show that despite being located in interconnected power markets, electricity consumers receive different fuel and carbon price signals. |
| JEL: | Q54 Q58 L94 Q41 |
| Date: | 2026–05–07 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:bsl:wpaper:2026/04 |
| By: | Melanie Jones; Ezgi Kaya; Suzanna Nesom |
| Abstract: | Using an extensive expansion of pre-school childcare in Wales in 2019 this paper explores whether access to free childcare increases parental employment. Our analysis is based on two alternative identification strategies applied to rich household data from the Annual Population Survey. First, we use a regression discontinuity design to exploit eligibility cutoffs based on the child’s date of birth. Second, we apply a staggered difference-in-differences approach leveraging the phased spatial rollout of the policy during its trial period. We find no evidence of an impact of free pre-school childcare on parental employment using either approach. Moreover, this is true for mothers, parents with relatively low education and for parents whose youngest child is eligible, where more pronounced effects might be anticipated. Our evidence therefore questions the effectiveness of the policy in increasing parental employment. |
| Keywords: | parental employment, childcare policy, regression discontinuity design, staggered difference-in-differences. |
| JEL: | J13 J21 J22 |
| Date: | 2026–05 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:yor:yorken:26/03 |
| By: | Teufel, Julia (RS: GSBE other - not theme-related research, Microeconomics & Public Economics); Kibbe, Alexandra; Bartsch, Nicole; Rusch, Hannes (RS: GSBE UM-BIC, Microeconomics & Public Economics, RS: GSBE other - not theme-related research) |
| Abstract: | Police officers encounter the darker sides of human behavior on a daily basis, including crime and challenging interactions with civilians. Moreover, officers are bound by strict social hierarchies within the police force. Survey evidence, mostly from North America, suggests that such exposure can lead to substantial attitude change in police recruits, especially when combined with a strong “police culture.” These changes often tilt toward more authoritarian and less prosocial orientations. However, most existing evidence relies on cross-sectional data and cannot capture within-person change. We extend this work to a German context using a truly longitudinal design. New police students were surveyed three times during their first year of training, from entry through their initial field experiences. We measured a range of attitudes and personality traits, including social dominance orientation, HEXACO’s honesty-humility, and general trust, and compared them with two reference groups: a large sample from the German population and first-year university students surveyed at the same times with identical instruments. Our results reveal notable changes over time. Police recruits start their training with higher-than-average levels of honesty-humility and trust, suggesting a more positive social outlook. However, they also show higher SDO, which increases further across waves, while other measures decline, gradually converging toward population averages. These findings suggest that hierarchical environments, and repeated exposure to high-stress social encounters may shape attitudes during early police socialization. Beyond their academic implications, our results offer practical insights for designing police training programs that help sustain recruits’ prosocial motivations and trust in society. |
| Keywords: | police, personality, attitude change, LONGITUDINAL EVIDENCE |
| Date: | 2026–05–11 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:unm:umagsb:2026004 |
| By: | Léonard Moulin; Valeria Maria Urbano; Lorenzo Maraviglia |
| Abstract: | Congestion pricing policies have been implemented in several cities to reduce traffic congestion and mitigate environmental impacts in urban areas. However, the externalities of such policies may extend beyond traffic reduction, potentially generating indirect effects on health and, consequently, on children’s educational outcomes. This study examines the impact of the congestion policy Area C introduced in Milan in 2012 on the academic performance of primary school pupils. Using a differencein- differences design and individual-level data from academic years 2009/2010 to 2018/2019, we analyze students’ outcomes across grades and subjects based on standardized tests from INVALSI. Our findings show statistically significant positive effects for second-grade students in both Mathematics and Italian, while no significant effects emerge for fifth-grade students. Moreover, the effects are heterogeneous across parental occupational backgrounds, with the largest gains observed among children from lower occupational backgrounds. Our results show that environmental regulation can generate meaningful equity-enhancing effects, narrowing early academic inequalities that mirror the socioeconomic structure of the city. |
| Keywords: | Low-emission zones, congestion policy, air pollution, student achievement, educational inequality, difference-in-differences, Italy, REUSSITE SCOLAIRE / EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT, POPULATION SCOLAIRE / SCHOOL POPULATION, ENSEIGNEMENT PRIMAIRE / PRIMARY EDUCATION, CIRCULATION URBAINE / URBAN TRAFFIC, POLITIQUE DE L'ENVIRONNEMENT / ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY, POLLUTION ATMOSPHERIQUE / AIR POLLUTION, ITALIE / ITALY |
| Date: | 2026 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:idg:wpaper:fbdrrp4bvb1v4zsxa0xr |
| By: | Ciccarelli , Carlo (University of Rome Tor Vergata); Marciante, Gianni (University of Bologna) |
| Abstract: | The role of womens education in driving the historical fertility transition remains poorly understood. Existing studies have focused on France, an early outlier, or on Prussia before the onset of its demographic transition. Less is known about the context where this effect is expected to be strongest: the onset of the transition in late transitioning countries. This paper fills this gap by studying the impact of womens education on fertility in Italy (1881 to 1921). Using original district level panel data, we exploit the interaction between proximity to the first female teacher training colleges opened under the Casati Law of 1859 and time fixed effects as an instrumental variable. IV estimates confirm a negative effect of education on fertility, operating through health knowledge and the economic independence that female teachers embodied. |
| Keywords: | JEL Classification: |
| Date: | 2026 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cge:wacage:804 |
| By: | Afroza Alam; André Diegmann |
| Abstract: | This paper provides new causal evidence on how patent allowances affect firms and their employees based on quasi-random assignment of patent applications to examiners. Exploiting employer–employee records with newly linked German firm data and web-scraped patent documents, we show that patent-induced shocks reduce firm exit, improve productivity, and increase wages, with rent-sharing elasticities between 0.10 and 0.21. Wage gains are broadly observed across occupational tasks, with high heterogeneity: managers benefit disproportionately in publicly traded firms, whereas broader wage increases accrue to workers in non-traded firms. Our findings highlight the role of institutional features and firm organization in shaping how rents are shared. |
| Keywords: | innovation, firm performance, worker compensation, rent sharing |
| JEL: | O31 O34 J31 D22 |
| Date: | 2026 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ces:ceswps:_12666 |
| By: | Vincent Bignon; Benoit Mojon; Miguel Ortiz Serrano |
| Abstract: | The severity of financial crises is exacerbated by the lack of international liquidity or the absence of a global lender of last resort. This was evident during the Long Depression (1873–1896), the Great Depression (1929–1936), and, as we show in this paper, during the 1805–1806 crisis that followed the Battle of Trafalgar. The latter took Atlantic trade routes away from Spain and cut off Europe's access to Latin American silver, the key high-powered money of the time. This silver shortage led the Banque de France to cut lending by nearly 50% within three months, deliberately tightening credit to hoard specie and restore the value of its bank notes. In turn, no less than 20 Parisian banks failed, credit collapsed and European financial and money markets experienced acute stress, reflected in rising silver prices, pressure on the metallic reserves of other central banks such as the Banco de San Carlos in Madrid, and disruptions in bills of exchange markets across Europe, from Cádiz to Hamburg. The 1805–1806 crisis highlights how a safe asset's status requires both its resilient supply and the credibility of its issuer. |
| Keywords: | Spanish dollars, Kindleberger gap, International Monetary System |
| JEL: | E41 E58 F33 |
| Date: | 2026–05 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:bis:biswps:1347 |
| By: | Flinner, Susanne; Lehmann, Paul; Reda, Milan Jakob |
| Abstract: | Albeit heat pumps are viewed as a key technology to decarbonize buildings, their upfront costs exceed investment costs for fossil boilers. These excess investment costs for heat pumps over fossil boilers are heterogeneously distributed across and within income groups, depending on building characteristics and local climate conditions. This paper investigates vertical and horizontal inequalities associated with investments in heat pumps as opposed to fossil heating systems, assessing them in absolute and income-relative terms. Using German survey data on building type, age, insulation condition, living area, and local climate, we estimate household-specific excess investment costs and analyze their relationship with income. In absolute terms, investment costs are equally distributed across income groups. However, when measured relative to income, distributional effects are regressive. Regarding the drivers of these effects, we show that lower-income households tend to live in smaller, older, and less well-insulated buildings than higher-income households. In contrast, for higher-income households, excess costs are largely driven by their comparatively larger living areas. Consequently, households across income groups face, on average, similar excess costs, albeit for different reasons. We also observe substantial horizontal inequalities in both absolute terms and relative to household income, reflecting considerable cost variations within income groups, depending on the combination of building type, building age, insulation condition and living area. Again, the drivers of these horizontal inequalities vary across income groups. We find that mitigating both vertical and horizontal inequalities requires targeted subsidies that take into account not only income differences but also substantial heterogeneity in building characteristics. |
| Keywords: | Heat pump investment, Decarbonization, Cost distribution |
| Date: | 2026 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:ufzdps:341101 |
| By: | Fieles-Ahmad, Omar (Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg); Kvasnicka, Michael (Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg) |
| Abstract: | Following reunification, anti-foreigner crimes rose sharply in the former GDR. Using county-level data for the early 1990s, we study if regional access to Western TV, i.e. non-socialist media, prior to the fall of the Berlin Wall had an impact on regional levels of serious anti-foreigner crime (murder and arson) in East Germany. We find that East German counties with no access to Western TV exhibit higher rates of such crimes, as in the ’valley of the clueless’ around Dresden. This crime-attenuating effect of Western TV proves robust in a battery of robustness checks and underscores the importance of media for anti-foreigner attitudes and crimes well before the rise of the internet and social media. |
| Keywords: | crimes against foreigners, Western TV, immigration, East Germany |
| JEL: | F22 J15 K42 |
| Date: | 2026–05 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iza:izadps:dp18648 |
| By: | Montes-Viñas, Ana (LISER); Sologon, Denisa (LISER); Li, Jinjing (University of Canberra; LISER) |
| Abstract: | This paper examines how stable national disposable income inequality can coexist with substantial local reconfiguration in a small, open, and integrated economy. Focusing on Luxembourg between 2011 and 2021, it analyses how demographic change, labour market restructuring, and redistribution shape inequality across municipalities. We develop a spatial microsimulation framework combining EU-SILC microdata, Census aggregates, and EUROMOD to recover local disposable income distributions where representative small-area data are unavailable. Three findings emerge. First, inequality is driven mainly by disparities within municipalities, not by differences between them. Second, although disposable income inequality is spatially clustered, clustering weakens over time. Stable national inequality conceals divergent local trajectories: inequality declines in Luxembourg City and its urban belt, but rises in the southern industrial belt, the northern region, and other municipalities. Third, counterfactual decompositions show that demographic change increased local inequality outside the urban core, while labour market change and the tax-benefit system partly offset this pressure. |
| Keywords: | spatial income inequality, disposable income inequality, spatial microsimulation, counterfactual decomposition, tax-benefit policy, labour market structure, demographic change, EUROMOD |
| JEL: | D31 D63 R12 H23 H24 |
| Date: | 2026–04 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iza:izadps:dp18610 |
| By: | Alvaro Pedraza; Tomas Williams; Federica Zeni |
| Abstract: | Although the climate benefit of carbon abatement does not depend on where it occurs, firms do not treat carbon offsets as geographically fungible. Using transaction-level data on corporate retirements in voluntary carbon markets, we show that foreign firms retire disproportionately more offsets in countries where they operate, but these local retirements are systematically lower quality than the same firms' retirements elsewhere. We distinguish two mechanisms. Operational presence may improve screening of local projects, or it may raise the private value of visible local sourcing. The evidence supports the second mechanism. The quality gap declines with firm experience, consistent with learning, but is strongest in settings where local visibility is likely to matter most, including countries with higher climate ambition and weaker governance. Subsidiary-entry events corroborate the within-firm pattern: when a firm establishes a new subsidiary in a country, retirements there rise sharply, but these offsets come from lower-quality projects than the firm's retirements in other countries. Finally, in project segments where demand is dominated by firms with local operations, prices are less closely aligned with project integrity. The results reveal a demand-side distortion in markets for global public goods, whereby location-specific reputational benefits shift demand toward lower-quality supply and weaken the informational content of prices. |
| Keywords: | Voluntary carbon markets; Operational footprint; Local Goodwill; Carbon offset quality. |
| JEL: | F18 L14 Q54 Q58 G32 |
| Date: | 2026–05 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:gwc:wpaper:2026-010 |
| By: | Claudia Ciccone (Roma Tre University.) |
| Abstract: | The recent reform of the European fiscal governance framework has been portrayed as a break with the austerity logic of the past. Yet its core logic remains largely unchanged. This paper investigates the possible effects of the fiscal consolidations required under the new European fiscal rules on Italy's debt-to-GDP ratio. Drawing on the reference trajectory for net primary expenditure transmitted by the European Commission to Italy in June 2024, the analysis shows that the projected decline in the debt-to-GDP ratio relies on an assumption for which the Commission gives no justification: that the contractionary effects of fiscal consolidation on GDP are only temporary and fully dissipate three years after the adjustment period. Once this assumption is removed and the effects of consolidation are allowed to persist - as suggested by empirical evidence on hysteresis - GDP growth weakens substantially, and the debt-to-GDP ratio may increase rather than decrease. The findings suggest that the new governance framework may lead to the pro-cyclical tightening, weaker growth and adverse debt dynamics that characterized earlier phases of EU fiscal governance. |
| Keywords: | Fiscal policy; European economic governance; Debt sustainability; Fiscal consolidation; Net primary expenditure; Potential Output; Output gap; Fiscal multipliers; Austerity. |
| JEL: | E02 E32 E6 E62 F42 H61 H62 H63 H68 |
| Date: | 2025–11–19 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:thk:wpaper:inetwp243 |
| By: | Sandra Bohmann; Lars Felder; Peter Haan; Merve Kucuk; ; Laura Schmitz; Jürgen Schupp |
| Abstract: | Carbon pricing can deliver large emissions reductions, but public opposition remains a key barrier. We study how support for carbon tax-and-transfer schemes depends on policy design and information provision in a large-scale survey experiment with German respondents. Explaining the policy mechanism robustly increases support across price levels. Information on distributional consequences raises support only when revenue recycling is sufficiently generous, and can secure majority approval even at high carbon prices. Individualized cost information increases support among those who overestimated costs, with no backlash for under-estimators when redistribution is high. These effects operate through distinct fairness channels: information shapes both self- and other-regarding justice perceptions, and while self-interest predicts support, other-regarding concerns — particularly for the poor — are an independent driver of policy acceptance. Our findings suggest that political feasibility hinges not only on policy design, but on making the mechanism understood and its distributional implications visible. |
| Keywords: | Climate policy, distributional effects, public support, justice perceptions |
| JEL: | Q52 Q58 H23 |
| Date: | 2026 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:diw:diwwpp:dp2164 |
| By: | Kassaballi, Zouhier |
| Abstract: | This paper evaluates the effectiveness of a low-cost intervention combining Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) with behavioral economics insights, specifically motivational framing and near-peer role models. Using a randomized controlled trial among 317 migrants and refugees in German integration courses across six cities, I examine whether such an intervention can shift learning behavior and improve German language proficiency. The intervention raised adoption of the official state-recommended app "Ankommen" from 5% to 46% and doubled daily mobile learning time from 15 to 30 minutes. Intention-to-treat estimates show treatment increased self-reported German proficiency by 0.3 standard deviations, while Complier Average Causal Effect estimates indicate actual MALL adoption improved language skills by 0.76 to 0.83 standard deviations. These findings demonstrate that a brief, replicable encouragement intervention can meaningfully complement formal language instruction at negligible cost, offering a scalable policy tool for integration programs across Europe. |
| Keywords: | Mobile-Assisted Language Learning, Migration, Integration, Language Acquisition, Randomized Controlled Trial |
| JEL: | C93 I29 J15 J24 J61 |
| Date: | 2026–05–11 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:129066 |
| By: | Laaksonen, Jukka; Vaalavuo, Maria; Dobewall, Henrik |
| Abstract: | We study the causal effect of secondary school admission on adolescents’ mental health using extensive Finnish register data and a regression discontinuity design. Focusing on two separate margins among first-time applicants in 2008–2013—admission to vocational secondary education versus no admission, and admission to general versus vocational education —we examine short- and medium-term mental health impacts measured by health care utilization and psychotropic drug use. We find that admission to vocational education, relative to rejection by all applied secondary schools, reduces psychotropic drug use by 6.3 percentage points (-21%) within seven years of admission. While access to vocational education slightly increases health care visits in some areas, it substantially decreases visits for substance use. Moreover, we observe that admission to general rather than vocational education decreases specialized healthcare visits for mental health by 4.5 percentage points (-21%) within seven years of admission. The effects of admission to vocational education versus no admission emerge primarily after completing vocational education, possibly related to simultaneous labor market integration. Conversely, the effects of admission to general versus vocational education mostly appear already during the immediate years after admission, potentially driven by changes in peer characteristics and living arrangements. While causal mechanisms behind the mental health effects remain unclear, our results highlight important short and medium-term mental health benefits of secondary education. These findings point to the potential value of policies that ensure access to secondary education, such as extensions of compulsory education, and that support mental health during critical educational transitions. |
| Date: | 2026–05–11 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:osf:socarx:b4a5r_v1 |