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on Microeconomic European Issues |
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Issue of 2015‒08‒25
nineteen papers chosen by Giuseppe Marotta Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia |
| By: | Frédéric Branger (CIRED - Centre International de Recherche sur l'Environnement et le Développement - EHESS - École des hautes études en sciences sociales - AgroParisTech - CIRAD - Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement - École des Ponts ParisTech (ENPC) - CNRS, AgroParisTech); Philippe Quirion (CNRS, CIRED - Centre International de Recherche sur l'Environnement et le Développement - EHESS - École des hautes études en sciences sociales - AgroParisTech - CIRAD - Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement - École des Ponts ParisTech (ENPC) - CNRS) |
| Abstract: | We analyse variations of carbon emissions in the European cement industry from 1990 to 2012, at the European level (EU 27), and at the national level for six major producers (Germany, France, Spain, the United Kingdom, Italy and Poland). We apply a Log-Mean Divisia Index (LMDI) method, cross-referencing data from three databases: the Getting the Numbers Right (GNR) database developed by the Cement Sustainability Initiative, the European Union Transaction Log (EUTL), and the Eurostat International Trade database. Our decomposition method allows seven channels of emission change to be distinguished: activity, clinker trade, clinker share, alternative fuels, thermal and electrical energy efficiency, and electricity decarbonisation. We find that, apart from a slow trend of emission reductions coming from technological improvements (first from a decrease in the clinker share, then from an increase in alternative fuels), most of the emission change can be attributed to the activity effect. Using counterfactual scenarios, we estimate that the introduction of the EU ETS brought small but positive technological abatement (2.2% ± 1.3% between 2005 and 2012). Moreover, we find that the European cement industry has gained 3.5 billion Euros of " overallocation profits " , mostly due to the slowdown of production. |
| Date: | 2014–11–15 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:journl:hal-01137935&r=all |
| By: | Raul Ramos (AQR-IREA, University of Barcelona); Esteban Sanromá (IEB & University of Barcelona); Hipólito Simón (Universidad de Alicante, IEI & IEB) |
| Abstract: | This research examines wage differences between part-time and full-time workers using microdata from the Spanish Structure of Earnings Survey. The main contribution of the paper is related to the analysis of differences along the wage distribution using econometric decomposition methods and introducing a regional perspective. The evidence shows that part-time workers in Spain experience a significant wage disadvantage. This disadvantage is worse in the case of female workers and it is not homogenous along the wage distribution, being comparatively more relevant for the most qualified women and becoming positive for the most qualified men. However, the disadvantage is practically explained by the endowments of characteristics, with a leading role of segregation of part-time workers in low-wage firms. From a regional perspective, although in the majority of the regions wage differences tend to be explained by endowments of characteristics, there are several regions where the unexplained part of the differential is significant, particularly in the case of male workers. These regional differences seem to be related to differences in the market power of firms at the regional level. |
| Keywords: | Part-time work, wage gap, regional differences |
| JEL: | J31 J22 J41 R23 |
| Date: | 2015–08 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:xrp:wpaper:xreap2015-02&r=all |
| By: | Ramos, Raul (University of Barcelona); Sanromá, Esteban (University of Barcelona); Simón, Hipólito (Universidad de Alicante) |
| Abstract: | This research examines wage differences between part-time and full-time workers using microdata from the Spanish Structure of Earnings Survey. The main contribution of the paper is related to the analysis of differences along the wage distribution using econometric decomposition methods and introducing a regional perspective. The evidence shows that part-time workers in Spain experience a significant wage disadvantage. This disadvantage is worse in the case of female workers and it is not homogenous along the wage distribution, being comparatively more relevant for the most qualified women and becoming positive for the most qualified men. However, the disadvantage is practically explained by the endowments of characteristics, with a leading role of segregation of part-time workers in low-wage firms. From a regional perspective, although in the majority of the regions wage differences tend to be explained by endowments of characteristics, there are several regions where the unexplained part of the differential is significant, particularly in the case of male workers. These regional differences seem to be related to differences in the market power of firms at the regional level. |
| Keywords: | part-time work, wage gap, regional differences |
| JEL: | J31 J22 J41 R23 |
| Date: | 2015–08 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:iza:izadps:dp9257&r=all |
| By: | Marin Falk and Eva Hagsten |
| Abstract: | This study investigates the patterns and trends of e-commerce activities as well as their impact on labour productivity growth in a group of European countries. At hand for the exercise is a unique panel of micro-aggregated firm-level data for 14 European countries spanning over the years 2002 to 2010. The empirical approach is twofold: A static specification and a dynamic panel data model. The former is a difference specification estimated by OLS and the latter uses system GMM to account for endogeneity of e-commerce activities. For the impact analysis e-commerce is narrowed down to e-sales, measured as the percentage of firms receiving orders online (EDI or websites) or as the share of total sales in firms. Descriptive statistics reveal that the proportion of firms engaging in e-sales activities is slowly growing over time starting from a low level. The OLS estimates, controlling for industry, time and country effects, show that the change in e-sales activities and labour productivity growth are significantly positively related. Specifically, an increase in e-sales raises the rate of labour productivity by 0.3 percentage points over a two-year period for the total sample. Services industries experience a larger impact than manufacturing. In addition, dynamic panel data estimates demonstrate that smaller firms gain the most from increases in e-sales. Overall, for the total business sector, these estimates reveal that the increase in e-sales activities during the period studied accounts for 17 per cent of the total growth in labour productivity. |
| Date: | 2015 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:unc:dispap:220&r=all |
| By: | Stephen Bazen (AMSE - Aix-Marseille School of Economics - EHESS - École des hautes études en sciences sociales - Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS) - Ecole Centrale Marseille (ECM) - AMU - Aix-Marseille Université); Kadija Charni (AMSE - Aix-Marseille School of Economics - EHESS - École des hautes études en sciences sociales - Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS) - Ecole Centrale Marseille (ECM) - AMU - Aix-Marseille Université) |
| Abstract: | Cross section data suggest that the relationship between age and hourly earnings is an inverted-U shape. Evidence from panel data does not necessarily confirm this finding suggesting that older workers may not experience a reduction in earnings at the end of their working life. In this paper we use panel data on males for Great Britain in order to examine why the two types of data provide conflicting conclusions. Concentrating on the over 50s, several hypotheses are examined: overlapping cohorts, job tenure, job-changing, labour supply behaviour and selectivity bias. Cohort and individual fixed effects partly explain the divergent conclusions. However, for fully, year-on-year employed individuals, there is no evidence of earnings decline at the end of working life. We find no role for selectivity due to retirement, although shorter working hours or partial retirement along with job-changing late in life do provide an explanation for why hourly earnings decline for certain older workers. We find no evidence that the process of ageing itself leads to lower earnings as suggested by the cross section profile. |
| Date: | 2015–02 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:wpaper:halshs-01119425&r=all |
| By: | Andreas Thiemann |
| Abstract: | This paper uses administrative data to investigate how a change in pension wealth affects a mother’s employment decision after child birth. I exploit the extension of the child care pension benefit in 1992 as a natural experiment in a regression discontinuity design to estimate short- and medium-run employment effects. In comparison to most family benefits, the child care pension benefit is accumulated upon child birth but only becomes effective on the verge of retirement. Hence, the employment response depends on how a mother discounts future pension benefits. The results suggest that the change in pension wealth does not affect maternal employment, which is not in line with a forward looking rational behavior. Therefore, the child care pension benefit increases maternal old-age income without causing negative employment reactions. |
| Keywords: | Natural experiment, female labor supply, pension benefit |
| JEL: | J13 H55 D19 |
| Date: | 2015 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:diw:diwwpp:dp1499&r=all |
| By: | Robin Jessen; Davud Rostam-Afschar; Viktor Steiner |
| Abstract: | We study three budget-neutral reforms of the German tax and transfer system designed to improve work incentives for people with low incomes: a feasible flat tax reform that provides a basic income which is equal to the current level of the means tested unemployment benefit, and two alternative reforms that involve employment subsidies to stimulate participation and full-time work, respectively. We estimate labor supply reactions and welfare effects using a microsimulation model based on household data from the Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP) and a structural labor supply model. We find that all three reforms increase labor supply in the first decile of the income distribution. However, the flat tax scenario reduces overall labor supply by 4.9%, the reform scenario designed to increase participation reduces labor supply by 1%, while the reform that provides improved incentives to work full-time has negligible effects on overall labor supply. With equal welfare weights, aggregate welfare gains are realizable under all three reforms. |
| Keywords: | Flat Tax, Basic Income, Work Incentives, Poverty, Microsimulation |
| JEL: | H31 I38 J22 C25 |
| Date: | 2015 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:diw:diwsop:diw_sp781&r=all |
| By: | Kathleen Scanlon; Melissa Fernández Arrigoitia; Christine M E Whitehead |
| Abstract: | Social housing has been an important part in Europe’s housing provision for many decades both in terms of investment in new build and regeneration but also in providing adequate affordable housing for a wide range of European citizens. This role has been seen to be under threat especially since the 1980s as public expenditure pressures have grown, liberalisation and privatisation have become more important and alternative tenures have become more readily available.1 This paper draws out some of the most important trends in the scale of social housing in countries across Europe; clarifies who lives in the sector and under what terms and conditions, and then discusses some of the drivers behind these trends and implications for the future provision of social housing.2 In particular it addresses the extent to which social housing contributes to ensuring that households can access adequate standard accommodation at a price they can afford in different contexts within the European Union. It also looks to the challenges faced by the sector and its role in the future. |
| JEL: | R14 J01 |
| Date: | 2015 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ehl:lserod:62938&r=all |
| By: | João Medeiros; Christoph Schwierz |
| Abstract: | Health care spending has been rising faster than national income throughout the EU for decades and is projected to continue doing so as a result of population ageing. However, this paper estimates that there is substantial scope to improve the efficiency of Europe's health care systems and that this could halt the rise in health care expenditure as a proportion of GDP over the long term. |
| JEL: | I12 I18 C51 |
| Date: | 2015–06 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:euf:ecopap:0549&r=all |
| By: | Andries Brandsma (European Commission – JRC - IPTS); D'Artis Kancs (European Commission – JRC - IPTS) |
| Abstract: | European integration changes the prospects of regional economies within the Member States of the European Union in many ways. Cohesion policy is the EU’s instrument to influence and complement the efforts at the national level to ensure that the gains of economic integration reach everyone, and there are no regions left behind. This paper presents and applies a spatial general equilibrium model RHOMOLO to assess the impact of regional policy in the EU. The presented simulation results highlight strengths of the approach taken in RHOMOLO in handling investments in R&D, infrastructure and spillovers of investments in the innovation capacity of the regions, both of which cannot be captured by models in which the spatial structure is not present. |
| Keywords: | Economic modelling, R&D, innovation, knowledge spillovers, spatial equilibrium, economic geography. |
| JEL: | D51 F1 O1 R12 R13 R23 R3 R4 |
| Date: | 2015–07 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ipt:iptwpa:jrc95421&r=all |
| By: | Christl, Michael; Köppl Turyna, Monika; Kucsera, Denes |
| Abstract: | The aim of this paper is to estimate the effect of minimum wage on employment rates taking into account potential nonlinearity. Focusing on three age groups, we find a significant nonlinear relationship between the minimum wage and employment for the young (15-24 years) and older working-age (55-64 years) groups, whereas for the prime-age workers (25-54 years) the minimum wage does not have a significant non-linear effect. Negative effect of the minimum wages on employment is stronger if the labor markets are otherwise strictly regulated and when workers are relatively unproductive. |
| Keywords: | minimum wage, employment, young workers, Europe |
| JEL: | J20 J38 J48 |
| Date: | 2015–07–01 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:65761&r=all |
| By: | Verónica Escudero (EEP-PSE - Ecole d'Économie de Paris - Paris School of Economics, PSE - Paris-Jourdan Sciences Economiques - CNRS - Institut national de la recherche agronomique (INRA) - EHESS - École des hautes études en sciences sociales - ENS Paris - École normale supérieure - Paris - École des Ponts ParisTech (ENPC), ILO - International Labour Organization - International Labour Organization) |
| Abstract: | This paper examines the effectiveness of active labour market policies (ALMPs) in improving labour market outcomes, especially of low-skilled individuals. The empirical analysis consists of an aggregate impact approach based on a pooled cross country and timeseries database for 31 advanced countries during the period 1985–2010. A novelty of the paper is that it includes aspects of the delivery system to see how the performance of ALMPs is affected by different implementation characteristics. Among the notable results, the paper finds that ALMPs matter at the aggregate level, both, in terms of reducing unemployment, but also in terms of increasing employment and participation. Interestingly, start-up incentives are more effective in reducing unemployment than other ALMPs. The positive effects seem to be particularly beneficial for the low-skilled. In terms of implementation, the paper finds that the most favourable aspect is the allocation of resources to programme administration. Finally, a disruption of policy continuity is associated with negative effects for all labour market variables analysed. |
| Date: | 2015–01 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:psewpa:halshs-01105347&r=all |
| By: | WADA Tetsuo |
| Abstract: | Despite large numbers of empirical studies being conducted on examiner patent citations, few have scrutinized the cognitive limitations of officials at patent offices in searching for prior art to add patent citations during patent prosecution. This research takes advantage of the longitudinal gap between international search reports (ISRs) required by the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) and subsequent examination procedures in national phases. It inspects whether several kinds of distances actually affect the probability that a piece of prior art is caught at the time of ISRs, which is much earlier than national phase examinations. Based on triadic PCT applications for all of the triadic patent offices (European Patent Office (EPO), United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO), and Japan Patent Office (JPO)) between 2002 and 2005 and their citations made by the triadic offices, evidence shows that geographical distances negatively affect the probability of prior patents being caught in ISRs, while a lag of prior art positively affects the probability. Also, the technological complexity of an application negatively affects the probability, whereas the size of forward citations of prior art affects it positively. These results show the existence of cognitive restrictions borne by officials at the patent offices, and suggest issues for designing work sharing by patent offices, in that the duplication of search costs exists only where search horizons of patent offices overlap each other. |
| Date: | 2015–08 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:eti:dpaper:15096&r=all |
| By: | Gava, Oriana; Andreoli, Maria; Bartolini, Fabio; Brunori, Gianluca |
| Abstract: | The provision of public goods is at the heart of agriculture’s multifunctionality. Since 1992s, the Common Agricultural Policy has addressed the environmental challenge by designing and implementing a set of environmental instruments, among which the most important are cross-compliance and agri-environmental schemes, respectively under Pillar I and Pillar II. The CAP has faced a reform where one of the main novelty beside to a new payment mechanism is the greening. This paper aims at assessing the ex-ante impact of alternative designs of the greening measure, within the framework of introduction of the new basic payment system. The design of the alternative scenarios encompasses the design of the optimal greening prescription: to increase the cost-effectiveness of the measure. The empirical analysis relies on Tuscany’s micro-data from the Italian agricultural Census 2010. We focus on the province of Grosseto, due to its high concentration of intensive farms. We apply a mathematical programming model at the farm level, which allows simulating the behaviour of farmers facing alternative greening designs under the new payment system. Data about farmers’ cost are derived from the Farm Accountancy Data Network. We assess the cost-effectiveness of alternative greening designs, by upscaling farm-level model’s results about the crop diversification index and the intensity of management. |
| Keywords: | ex-ante analysis, cost-effectiveness, hnv, mathematical programming, cap’s greening, Agricultural and Food Policy, Q18, Q10, |
| Date: | 2015–06 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ags:aiea15:207359&r=all |
| By: | Galioto, Francesco; Guerra, Elisa; Raggi, Meri; Viaggi, Davide |
| Abstract: | As the Water Framework Directive (WFD) expects, Italian Regions established new criteria for pricing rules the design, according to which Reclamation and Irrigation Boards (RIBs) allocate supply costs among users. A novelty is the attainment of full-cost recovery, introducing mixed tariffs, covering both fixed and variable costs. This paper evaluates the feasibility and the effectiveness of new water pricing criteria, in northern Italy case-study. Specifically, the impact of current pricing criteria are compared to a new hypothetical pricing scenario, based on irrigation consumption, land allocation, and irrigation technology adoption. The methodology followed a two-step approach. First, crops water requirements, and irrigation reduction effects on crop yields were simulated for different irrigation systems. Then, the derived water-crop production functions were input into an economic model, following a positive mathematical programming approach (PMP). Main assumptions were that farmers seek to maximize profits, that observed cropdesigns and water-uses are optimal, and that the authority acts on behalf of its users, aiming to both supply cost recovery and minimize impact on farm profits. Results highlight that there are no substantial variations between current and new hypothetical pricing scenarios, for three reasons. First, the variable charge is low, and it does not significantly affect water consumption. Second, incentive water pricing is feasible only in a limited area, served by pressured pipes. Third, irrigation water demand is inelastic, and it depends on the distribution system adopted. Moreover, the adoption rate of more precise irrigation systems would rise by increasing variable charges, when the ratio between fixed and variable components is flexible, hence also directly affecting irrigation demand. In fact, since fixed costs are usually greater than variable costs, mixed tariff adoption in this area could both recover water supply costs, and co-finance subsidies on irrigation technology investments, as was otherwise prevented by latest CAP-reform. |
| Keywords: | WFD, PMP, water pricing, irrigation, Agricultural and Food Policy, Q5, |
| Date: | 2015–06 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ags:aiea15:207358&r=all |
| By: | Fatiha Bennia (Laboratoire de Santé Publique - AMU - Aix-Marseille Université); Nicolas Gravel (AMSE - Aix-Marseille School of Economics - EHESS - École des hautes études en sciences sociales - Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS) - Ecole Centrale Marseille (ECM) - AMU - Aix-Marseille Université); Brice Magdalou (LAMETA - Laboratoire Montpelliérain d'Économie Théorique et Appliquée - CNRS - Institut national de la recherche agronomique (INRA) - UM1 - Université Montpellier 1 - Centre international de hautes études agronomiques méditerranéennes [CIHEAM]); Patrick Moyes (GREThA - Groupe de Recherche en Economie Théorique et Appliquée - CNRS - Université Montesquieu - Bordeaux 4) |
| Abstract: | This paper compares distributions of Body Mass Index (BMI) among men and women in France, the US and the UK on the basis of a new normative criterion. Comparing distributions of BMI from a normative standpoint is conceptually challenging because of the ordinal nature of the variable. Our normative criterion is well-suited to handle this issue. It coincides with the possibility of moving from the dominated distribution to the dominating one by a finite sequence of Hammond transfers and/or elementary efficiency gains. An additional difficulty with BMI is that it is not monotonically increasing (or decreasing) with health or well-being. We therefore perform our analysis by considering all health-consistent rankings of BMI values. Our empirical results are striking. For a large class of these rankings of BMI values, it is shown that the distribution of BMI in France has worsened on the period 2008-2010 for both men and women according to first order dominance. It is also shown that for most welfare rankings of BMI values, the distribution of BMI is worse in every period in the female population than in the male one in all three countries. |
| Date: | 2015–05 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:wpaper:halshs-01174989&r=all |
| By: | Elena Stolyarova (CMA - Centre de Mathématiques Appliquées - MINES ParisTech - École nationale supérieure des mines de Paris, EDF R&D - EDF R&D - EDF Recherche et Développement); Hélène Le Cadre (CMA - Centre de Mathématiques Appliquées - MINES ParisTech - École nationale supérieure des mines de Paris); Dominique Osso (EDF R&D - EDF R&D - EDF Recherche et Développement); Benoit Allibe (EDF R&D - EDF R&D - EDF Recherche et Développement); Nadia Maïzi (CMA - Centre de Mathématiques Appliquées - MINES ParisTech - École nationale supérieure des mines de Paris) |
| Abstract: | This paper provides an empirical analysis of the supply-side constraints that impact household choices of space heating systems in French dwellings. Based on data from the 2006 National Housing Survey and the 2013 Household Survey, we estimate discrete choice models using socio-demographic, dwelling and spatial characteristics as determinants of choice. In order to capture the supply-side constraints, we perform a post-estimation clustering based on the Expectation-Maximization algorithm, which allows us to determine the groups of households that are most likely to choose each considered space heating system. The results suggest that for 2006, households living in individual houses preferred to heat space using an individual boiler, whereas those living in apartments opted for direct electric heating. In 2013 all households preferred direct electric heating, and wood heating became their second choice. The discrete choice models do not show a significant change in behavior from 2006 to 2013. The post-estimation clustering indicates that many households were strongly constrained by the conditions and characteristics of their living space in 2006. The mean probability of choosing direct electric heating or a boiler was more than 0.8 for 21% of households living in houses and for 36% living in apartments. Thus, these households did not seem to have a choice. In 2013 the supply-side constraints were weaker. The highest mean probability (0.755) is observed in the group opting for an individual boiler. We also observe an increase in the popularity of heat pump and wood heating systems. |
| Date: | 2015–02–04 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:wpaper:hal-01113230&r=all |
| By: | Rekers , Josephine V. (Department of Human Geography & CIRCLE, Lund University); Grillitsch, Markus (CIRCLE, Lund University) |
| Abstract: | Co-location alone is not sufficient to ensure efficient and effective interaction between economic agents. Also, institutions at multiple scales shape the behaviour of organizations and provide incentives for interaction. However, institutions as well as the impact of institutions on economic agents are not static, but rather change over time. In this paper we investigate this dynamic process: How does institutional change at different geographical scales affect localized learning processes? Using an intensive case study of the medical technology sector in Southern Sweden, we trace in detail how institutions at the supra-national, national and regional scale have changed over the past 15 years and how these have affected the opportunities for localized learning between firms and hospitals. Our case makes three contributions. First, it provides a detailed empirical example of the interdependencies between institutions at the supra-national, national and regional scales. Second, as institutions shape the behaviour of organizations, we demonstrate that institutional change introduced at the extra-regional scale can have profound consequences for the establishment of local innovation linkages – and thereby for the opportunities for localized learning. Third, this leads us to reconsider the ambitions of regional policies that aim to enhance localized learning. |
| Keywords: | Institutions; institutional change; multi-scalar interdependencies; social capital; knowledge networks; innovation; regional development |
| JEL: | B52 D83 I18 L50 O30 O31 O33 O38 |
| Date: | 2015–08–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hhs:lucirc:2015_026&r=all |
| By: | Christophe Daniel (Granem - Groupe de Recherche ANgevin en Economie et Management - UA - Université d'Angers - Agrocampus Ouest - Institut National de l'Horticulture et du Paysage); Anne Lavigne (LEO - Laboratoire d'économie d'Orleans - UO - Université d'Orléans - CNRS); Stéphane Mottet (CRIEF - Centre de Recherche sur l'Intégration Economique et Financière - Université de Poitiers); Jesus-Herell Nze Obame (Granem - Groupe de Recherche ANgevin en Economie et Management - UA - Université d'Angers - Agrocampus Ouest - Institut National de l'Horticulture et du Paysage); Bruno Séjourné (Granem - Groupe de Recherche ANgevin en Economie et Management - UA - Université d'Angers - Agrocampus Ouest - Institut National de l'Horticulture et du Paysage); Christian Tagne (LEO - Laboratoire d'économie d'Orleans - UO - Université d'Orléans - CNRS) |
| Abstract: | This contribution proposes a measure of retirees' pension wealth in the French public Pay-As-You-Go schemes (first and second pillar schemes) and of its distribution among the population of retirees in 2012 using the Echantillon Inter régimes de Retraités (EIR) panel data. We show that aggregate pension wealth amounts to around €5 800 billion assuming a 2 percent discount rate which represents 25 years of benefits and 2.8 years of 2012 GDP. There are significant differences in the amount of individual's pension wealth between the pension schemes of the private and public sectors, and between men and women. Moreover, there is more inequality in the distribution of pension wealth among private sector retirees than public sector ones. Codes JEL : G23, H31, J32. We thank the Direction de la recherche, des études, de l'évaluation et des statistiques of the French Government for providing us with the EIR 2012. This research has benefited for the financial support of the Observatoire de l'Epargne Européenne. |
| Date: | 2015–07–09 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:wpaper:halshs-01175605&r=all |