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on Development |
| By: | Leight, Jessica; Hirvonen, Kalle; Zafar, Sarim |
| Abstract: | Over the last 20 years, a burgeoning scholarly literature has analyzed the effects of cash transfer and cash plus interventions in a wide range of contexts and using a range of empirical designs. We conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis to estimate the pooled effect of any cash or cash plus intervention on livelihoods-related outcomes (consumption, income and labor supply), ultimately compiling 305 different treatment estimates from 155 treatment arms in 104 studies (and in 43 countries). Using random effects and multilevel models, our findings suggest that cash transfer programming is associated with an increase of between $1 and $2 in monthly household consumption and income per $100 in cumulative transfers, an effect that persists for a period of roughly three years (inclusive of the period of program implementation); this effect is meaningfully larger (as much as $4 larger) for cash transfer programs that also include a cash plus livelihoods intervention. There are no significant effects observed on labor force participation. We also present a range of estimates capturing the longer-term (cumulative) effects of cash transfers on consumption under alternate assumptions. |
| Keywords: | cash transfers; consumption; income; livelihoods |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:ifprid:2262 |
| By: | Dang, Hai-Anh H.; Kilic, Talip; Abanokova, Kseniya; Carletto, Calogero |
| Abstract: | Accurate poverty measurement relies on household consumption data, but such data are often inadequate, outdated or display inconsistencies over time in poorer countries. To address these data challenges, we employ survey-to-survey imputation to produce estimates for several poverty indicators including headcount poverty, extreme poverty, poverty gap, near-poverty rates, as well as mean consumption levels and the entire consumption distribution. Analyzing 22 multi-topic household surveys conducted over the past decade in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Malawi, Nigeria, Tanzania, and Vietnam, we find encouraging results. Adding either household utility expenditures or food expenditures to basic imputation models with household-level demographic, employment, and asset variables could improve the probability of imputation accuracy between 0.1 and 0.4. Adding predictors from geospatial data could further increase imputation accuracy. The analysis also shows that a larger time interval between surveys is associated with a lower probability of predicting some poverty indicators, and that a better imputation model goodness-of-fit (R2) does not necessarily help. The results offer cost-saving inputs into future survey design. |
| Keywords: | consumption, poverty, survey-to-survey imputation, household surveys, Vietnam, Ethiopia, Malawi, Nigeria, Tanzania, Sub-Saharan Africa |
| JEL: | C15 I32 O15 |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:glodps:1458 |
| By: | Wannaphong Durongkaveroj |
| Abstract: | Developing countries have greatly benefited from globalization, coinciding with economic growth and structural transformation. Standard trade theory postulates that trade openness contributes to poverty alleviation directly by changing factor proportions of production and indirectly through the trickledown effect of growth. Existing multi-country studies using the trade-to-GDP ratio to measure openness often fail to find a direct effect of openness on poverty over and above the growth-poverty nexus. This paper is motivated by the concern that failure of these studies to detect the effectiveness of the factor proportion channel may be due to limitations of the commonly used measure of trade openness, the trade-to-GDP ratio. Using a newly constructed index of trade openness, which I dub ‘the price convergence index’ (PCI), I find significant direct effect of openness on poverty reduction. The results also suggest that the impact of growth on poverty is greater for countries with more open trade regimes. |
| JEL: | F13 F14 F15 F43 I30 |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pas:papers:2024-7 |
| By: | Missbach, Leonard; Steckel, Jan Christoph; Renner, Sebastian; Kraus, Sebastian |
| Abstract: | Past periods of industrial development have gone hand in hand with the burning of coal, but there is little evidence on the effects of coal infrastructure on manufacturing growth in today's industrializing economies. We quantify the direct and indirect effects of coal-fired power plant commissioning on local incumbent manufacturing firms in Indonesia during a coal phase-in period between 1984 and 2015. We analyze spatially and temporally explicit manufacturing and power plant data in a stacked difference-in-difference framework. Leveraging quasi-random variation in treatment timing, we show that coal-fired power plants have led incumbent larger firms to increase employment, inputs, and outputs. In contrast, smaller firms remained unaffected. We identify mediating channels including improved electricity supply and transportation infrastructure, and increased competition for labor. Ongoing efforts to reduce global coal capacity need to take such effects into account. |
| Keywords: | Coal, Manufacturing, Industrialization, Indonesia, Difference-in-difference |
| JEL: | C55 L60 O12 O14 O53 Q40 R11 |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:esprep:300209 |
| By: | Haile, Beliyou; Azzarri, Carlo; Tzintzun, Ivan; Boukaka, Sedi-Anne; Vitellozzi, Sveva |
| Abstract: | Sustainable intensification (SI) of the smallholder sector in Africa south of the Sahara is among the approaches pursued to build resilient food systems that can supply nutritionally adequate food in the face of rapid population growth and climatic changes. This study assesses the impact of an SI program in Tanzania implemented in the poorest and most food insecure areas of the country since 2012. The program first validated and then scaled up a wide range of SI interventions focused on improved agronomic management and crop cultivars; improved livestock feed, housing conditions, and species; crop-livestock integration; integrated natural resource management; vegetable production and nutritional education; and small-scale mechanization. Impact is estimated on several SI indicators and domains using two rounds of quasi-experimental panel data (conducted in 2014 and 2022), propensity score matching, and difference-in-differences techniques. The study design allows us to estimate the impact of Africa RISING by comparing outcomes among program beneficiaries with two different counterfactual groups—one located inside program villages (within-village comparison) and another in non-program (control) villages (out-of-village comparison)—on several indicators across five SI domains environment, productivity, economic, human, and social. We also conduct a placebo test comparing non-beneficiaries in the two counterfactual groups. Results from panel data analyses show improvements in several indicators in the environmental and productivity domains. We also find positive impact of participation in Africa RISING on several indicators under all the considered domains: beneficiaries were less likely to experience soil erosion, used more inputs (fertilizers, pesticides, and seeds) per hectare, obtained higher legume yields, were more likely to produce meat and dairy, reported higher net livestock income, and experienced fewer months of food insecurity. Estimates based on within-village, out-of-village, overall, and placebo comparisons suggest important insights about the challenges in assessing the impact of agricultural programs in general and, specifically, participatory multi-intervention programs in the presence of sample (self-)selection and spillovers. Our study highlights useful empirical lessons learned for informing future program design and impact assessments. |
| Keywords: | impact assessment; sustainable intensification; smallholders; resilience; food systems; climatic change; Tanzania; Africa; Sub-Saharan Africa; Eastern Africa |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:resrep:148751 |
| By: | Haile, Beliyou; Azzarri, Carlo; Castaing, Pauline; Kizito, Fred; Vitellozzi, Sveva; Boukaka, Sedi-Anne |
| Abstract: | Sustainable intensification (SI) of the smallholder sector in Africa south of the Sahara is among the approaches pursued to build resilient food systems that can supply nutritionally adequate food in the face of rapid population growth and climatic changes. This study assesses the impact of Africa RISING, an SI program in Ghana implemented in the poorest and most food insecure areas of the country since 2012. The program first validated and then scaled up a wide range of SI interventions focused on improved agronomic management and crop cultivars; improved livestock feed, housing conditions, and species; crop-livestock integration; integrated natural resource management; vegetable production and nutritional education; and small-scale mechanization. Impact is estimated using two rounds of quasi-experimental panel data (conducted in 2014 and 2020), propensity score matching, and difference-indifferences techniques. The study design allows us to estimate the impact of Africa RISING by comparing outcomes among program beneficiaries with those of two different control groups—one residing in program villages (within village comparison) and another in non-program (control) villages (out-of-village comparison) on several indicators across five SI domains—environment, productivity, economic, human, and social. We also conduct a placebo test comparing non-beneficiaries in the two control groups. Results from panel data analyses show improvements in several indicators in the environmental and productivity domains. We also find a positive impact on use of conservation practices (fallowing, disc/moldboard ploughing, manure), groundnut yield, livestock, net crop income, and women’s likelihood of becoming members of farmers groups relative to non-beneficiaries. We do not find a statistically significant effect on consumption- and asset-based poverty rates, household dietary diversity, and several indicators of maternal and child nutrition. For both beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries, the share of monetary-based non-poor, dietary diversity, and food security have declined between baseline (2014) and follow-up (2020) likely due COVID-19. Our study highlights useful empirical lessons learned for informing future program design and impact assessments. |
| Keywords: | impact assessment; sustainable intensification; smallholders; resilience; food systems; climate change; Africa; Sub-Saharan Africa; Western Africa; Ghana |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:resrep:148741 |
| By: | Haile, Beliyou; Azzarri, Carlo; Boukaka, Sedi-Anne; Tzintzun, Ivan; Vitellozzi, Sveva |
| Abstract: | This study evaluates the impact of Africa RISING, a sustainable intensification (SI) program, implemented in Bougouni, Yanfolila, and Koutiala cercles in southern Mali beginning in 2012. Using a participatory action research framework, the program validated and promoted alternative SI options including fertilized groundnut and sorghum, crop-legume intercropping, intercropping of two compatible legumes, access to extension services, and fertilizer microdosing, while preserving ecosystem services in the face of projected population growth and climatic changes. Impact is estimated on several SI indicators and domains using two rounds of quasi-experimental panel data (surveys conducted in 2014 and 2022) and difference-in-differences techniques. The unique study design allows us to estimate the impact of Africa RISING by comparing outcomes among program beneficiaries with two different counterfactual groups—one located inside program villages (within-village comparison) and another in non-program (control) villages (out-of-village comparison) on several indicators across five SI domains—environment, productivity, economic, human, and social. We also conduct a placebo test comparing non-beneficiaries in the two counterfactual groups. We find few statistically significant differences in the averages of the characteristics in the environmental and productivity domain among households in the within-village and out-of-village comparisons, most likely because of misreporting of program participation. Overall comparisons between households in target and non-target villages show a positive impact of AR on environmental variables such as access to extension services, and adoption of improved crops; on productivity variables such as green bean, cotton and okra yield; and on economic variables such as an increase in the non-agricultural wealth index; but no statistically significant effect on human and social indicators, namely household dietary diversity, food consumption scores, and nutritional indicators for children 0–59 months old and women 15–49 years old. Estimates based on within-village, out-of-village, and placebo comparisons suggest important insights about the challenges in assessing the impact of agricultural programs in general and, specifically, participatory multi-intervention programs in the presence of sample (self-)selection and spillovers. Our study highlights useful empirical lessons learned to inform future program design and impact assessments. |
| Keywords: | sustainability; groundnuts; sorghum; legumes; agricultural extension; fertilizers; ecosystem services; agriculture; agricultural productivity; income; Western Africa; Africa; Mali |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:resrep:148698 |
| By: | Haile, Beliyou; Azzarri, Carlo; Boukaka, Sedi-Anne; Chikowo, Regis; Vitellozzi, Sveva |
| Abstract: | This study evaluates the impact of Africa RISING, a large-scale sustainable intensification (SI) program that has been implemented in Central Malawi’s Dedza and Ntcheu districts beginning in 2012. Using a participatory action research framework, the program validated and promoted alternative SI options including fertilized maize, maize-legume intercropping, intercropping of two compatible legumes, cereal-legume rotation, and double-row planting of legumes. Impact is estimated on several SI indicators and domains using two rounds of panel data and difference-in-differences techniques. The unique study design allowed us to estimate impact by comparing outcomes among program beneficiaries with two different counterfactual groups—one located inside program villages (within village comparison) and another in non-program (control) villages (out-of-village comparison). We also conduct a placebo test comparing non-beneficiaries in the two counterfactual groups. The within-village comparison shows positive impact on several agricultural and economic indicators including access to agricultural information, value of harvest, on-farm diversity, labor profitability, annual net household income, per capita household consumption expenditure, household wealth, and household dietary diversity score. We do not find a statistically significant impact on human indicators such as child and maternal nutrition. Estimates based on within-village, out-of-village, and placebo comparisons suggest important insights about the challenges in assessing the impact of agricultural programs in general and, specifically, participatory multi-intervention programs in the presence of sample (self-)selection and spillovers. Our study highlights important lessons learned to inform future program design and impact assessments. |
| Keywords: | sustainability; intensification; agriculture; maize; legumes; indicators; income; nutrition; Africa; Eastern Africa; Malawi |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:resrep:148699 |
| By: | Masselus, Lise; Ankel-Peters, Jörg; Gonzalez Sutil, Gabriel; Modi, Vijay; Mugyenyi, Joel; Munyehirwe, Anicet; Williams, Nathan; Sievert, Maximiliane |
| Abstract: | Extending the power grid into hitherto unconnected areas is high on the policy agenda in Sub-Saharan Africa. Yet, connection rates and electricity consumption remain low in grid connected areas, at least in the short and medium run. This paper provides a long-term follow-up on an evaluation of a large-scale grid extension program in rural Rwanda. We study the adoption of grid electricity over time using a panel of 41 communities that were electrified up to ten years ago. We find that connection rates for households living near the grid increased from 62% in 2013 to 82% in 2022. At the wider community level, connection rates are much lower, at 51%. Furthermore, electricity consumption and appliance usage are low and did not grow over time. We corroborate these findings with administrative consumption data from the utility customer data base. Our findings suggest that investments into gridbased rural electrification cannot be justified by economic development impacts and cost-benefit considerations. |
| Abstract: | Die Ausweitung des Stromnetzes auf bisher nicht angeschlossene Gebiete steht ganz oben auf der politischen Agenda in Afrika südlich der Sahara. Dennoch sind die Anschlussraten und der Stromverbrauch in netzgebundenen Gebieten zumindest kurz- und mittelfristig niedrig. Dieses Papier bietet eine langfristige Nachbereitung einer Evaluierung eines groß angelegten Netzausbauprogramms im ländlichen Ruanda. Wir untersuchen die Akzeptanz von Netzstrom im Laufe der Zeit anhand eines Panels von 41 Gemeinden, die vor bis zu zehn Jahren elektrifiziert wurden. Wir stellen fest, dass die Anschlussquote für Haushalte, die in der Nähe des Netzes leben, von 62 % im Jahr 2013 auf 82 % im Jahr 2022 gestiegen ist. Auf der Ebene der gesamten Gemeinde liegen die Anschlussquoten mit 51 % deutlich niedriger. Darüber hinaus sind der Stromverbrauch und die Gerätenutzung gering und haben im Laufe der Zeit nicht zugenommen. Wir untermauern diese Ergebnisse mit administrativen Verbrauchsdaten aus der Kundendatenbank des Versorgungsunternehmens. Unsere Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass Investitionen in die netzgestützte ländliche Elektrifizierung nicht durch wirtschaftliche Entwicklungseffekte und Kosten-Nutzen-Erwägungen gerechtfertigt werden können. |
| Keywords: | Energy access, energy consumption, energy use, electricity, Sub-Saharan Africa |
| JEL: | H54 L94 O12 O13 O18 Q41 |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:rwirep:300563 |
| By: | Assefa, Thomas; Berhane, Guush; Abate, Gashaw T.; Abay, Kibrom |
| Abstract: | We revisit the state of smallholder fertilizer demand and profitability in Ethiopia in the face of the recent global fuel–food–fertilizer price crisis triggered by the Russian–Ukraine war and compounded by other domestic supply shocks. We first examine farmers’ response to changes in both fertilizer and food prices by estimating price elasticity of demand. We then revisit the profitability of fertilizer by computing average value–cost ratios (AVCRs) associated with fertilizer application before and after these crises. We use three-round detailed longitudinal household survey data, covering both pre-crisis (2016 and 2019) and post-crisis (2023) production periods, focusing on three main staple crops in Ethiopia (maize, teff, and wheat). Our analysis shows that fertilizer adoption, use, and yield levels were increasing until the recent crises, but these trends seem halted by these crises. We also find relatively large fertilizer price elasticity of demand estimates, ranging between 0.4 and 1.1, which vary across crops and are substantially larger than previous estimates. We find suggestive evidence that households with smaller farm sizes are relatively more responsive to changes in fertilizer prices. We also document that farmers’ response to increases in staple crop prices is not as strong as perceived and hence appears to be statistically insignificant. Finally, we show important dynamics in the profitability of chemical fertilizer. While the AVCRs show profitable trends for most crops, the share of farmers with profitable AVCRs declined following the fertilizer price surge. Our findings offer important insights for policy focusing on mitigating the adverse effects of fertilizer price shocks. |
| Keywords: | fertilizer application; smallholders; household surveys; yield response factor; shock; Africa; Eastern Africa; Ethiopia |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:ifprid:2263 |
| By: | Paz, Bruno; Dalheimer, Bernhard; Wollni, Meike |
| Abstract: | Increasing food demand will most likely be met with agricultural intensification and land clearing, exacerbating environmental consequences associated with food supply. The mechanisms and trade-offs between agriculture and the environment are heterogeneous and not well understood, yet key to enhance food production while safeguarding the environment, ensuring a dual purpose of food systems. This study examines the relationship between voluntary sustainability standards (VSS) and Rwandese coffee farmers’ technical efficiency and productivity while exploring the mechanisms behind potential trade-offs and synergies between certification, productivity, and forest protection. Using cross-sectional farm-level data of 842 coffee farmers in Rwanda, we measure the effect of VSS on technical efficiency and an enhanced vegetation index (EVI) reflecting vegetation health and density around the farm. We combine a stochastic frontier analysis controlling for sample selection bias with mediation analysis. Our analysis shows that certified farmers exhibit greater technical efficiency levels than non-certified farmers. We can attribute this to better farm management, leading to 19% and 4% increases in their productivity and technical efficiency, respectively. Our analysis also suggests that certifications lead to higher enhanced vegetation index scores in and around the coffee plots, which we attribute to the regulatory mechanisms associated with certification. We conclude that VSS can enhance coffee production while safeguarding the environment and being a valuable component of a more comprehensive rural development program. |
| Keywords: | Community/Rural/Urban Development, Crop Production/Industries, Environmental Economics and Policy, Farm Management, International Development, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis, Sustainability |
| Date: | 2024–07 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ags:gausfs:344224 |
| By: | Schmidt, Emily; Mugabo, Serge; Rosenbach, Gracie |
| Abstract: | The Government of Rwanda continues to work to accelerate structural transformation to expand and diversify the country’s economy. High rural population density and small agricultural landholdings are driving workers from agricultural households to seek employment outside of farming. Using representative data on agricultural production and employment for rural households in Rwanda from 2022, this research evaluates the opportunities rural households have to diversify their labor portfolios. We find that, rather than nonfarm household enterprises developing to meet greater rural service and goods demand, agriculture wage labor is the dominant source of off-own-farm employment. However, such informal agricultural wage labor is seen as low-productivity work and is among the lowest paid. Among nonfarm employment options, nonfarm businesses generate less income than nonagricultural wage labor, likely reflecting high barriers to entrepreneurship and low demand for off-farm services in rural areas. In contrast to employment profiles from other low-income countries, we find that the probability of a worker from an agricultural household in Rwanda engaging in rural, off-farm wage labor decreases as household welfare increases. Agricultural households that have workers seeking to hire out their labor tend to have the smallest landholdings, while households that hire in labor have the largest landholdings. Additionally, households with a higher share of members who completed primary education are less likely to hire out their labor, especially for agriculture wage work. These results suggest that programs that offer support services to agricultural households, such as financial services and affordable and relevant education, may be important in incentivizing these households to engage in entrepreneurship and form their own businesses or to seek wage employment in more remunerative sectors than agriculture. |
| Keywords: | Africa; Eastern Africa; Sub-Saharan Africa; Rwanda; agricultural production; economic aspects; employment; welfare; education; land ownership |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:rsspwp:13 |
| By: | Joshua Budlender |
| Abstract: | South Africa frequently experiences rolling blackouts ('load shedding') due to shortfalls in electricity generation. This is a common problem across the developing world, and yet the developmental impacts of insufficient and unstable electricity supply, and the benefits of mitigating this, are poorly understood. I use the introduction of a unique load shedding reduction policy in parts of South Africa's second-largest city, Cape Town, to investigate the mortality effects of load shedding and its mitigation. |
| Keywords: | Electricity, Mortality, Synthetic control method, South Africa |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:unu:wpaper:wp-2024-44 |
| By: | Kate Rich (Department of Economics, Stellenbosch University); Liezel Engelbrecht (Independent consultant); Gabrielle Wills (Department of Economics, Stellenbosch University); Edzani Mphaphuli (Grow Great) |
| Abstract: | A large international body of research investigates the determinants of stunting in young children, but few studies have considered which of these factors are the most important predictors of stunting. The relative importance of predictors of stunting has not been explored in South Africa. We examine the predictors of height-for-age and stunting and which of these are most important in children under 5 years of age in seven of the most food-insecure districts in South Africa, using data from the Grow Great Community Stunting Survey of 2022. We use dominance analysis and variable importance measures from conditional random forest models to assess the relative importance of predictors. In line with studies from other countries, we find that intergenerational and socioeconomic factors – specifically maternal height, birth weight and asset-based measures of socioeconomic status – are the most important predictors of height-for-age and stunting in these districts. Given our finding that intergenerational and socioeconomic factors are the most important predictors of stunting, we explore whether any other factors moderate (weaken) the relationship between these factors and child height, using conditional inference trees and moderation analysis. We find that being on track for vitamin A and deworming, adequate sanitation, a diverse diet and good maternal mental health moderate the effect of birth weight or mother's height, having a stronger association with height-for-age in children with lower birth weights and with shorter mothers. Though any impacts are likely to be small relative to the impact of intergenerational risk factors, these moderating factors may provide promising avenues for mitigating the intergenerational transmission of stunting risk in South Africa. |
| Keywords: | Growth faltering, determinants of stunting, intergenerational transmission, conditional inference trees, moderation analysis |
| JEL: | I10 I14 I18 |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:sza:wpaper:wpapers384 |
| By: | Dang, Hai-Anh H.; Do, Minh N. N.; Cuong Viet Nguyen |
| Abstract: | Very few studies have examined the impacts of both climate change and air pollution on student education outcomes, particularly in a developing country setting. Analyzing a rich database consisting of household and school surveys, test scores, and temperature and air pollution data over the past decade for Viet Nam, we find that a 1 μg/m3 increase in PM2.5 concentration in the month preceding exams leads to 0.015 and 0.010 standard deviation decreases in math and reading scores, respectively. We also find some indicative evidence of stronger impacts of air pollution for younger, primary school students who reside in urban areas and in districts with higher temperatures. While we find some mixed effects of temperature, we do not find significant effects on students' test scores for temperature extremes and air pollution over the past 12 months. Our findings offer policy-relevant inputs for the country's ongoing efforts to fight air pollution. |
| Keywords: | air pollution, climate change, weather extremes, education, Viet Nam |
| JEL: | O12 I10 Q53 Q54 |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:glodps:1464 |
| By: | Bohn, Sophia; Wollni, Meike; Paz, Bruno |
| Abstract: | Sustainability standards promise not only to promote environmentally friendly production, but also to improve farmers’ livelihoods by linking them to high-value markets. While there has been extensive research on how sustainability standards affect farmers’ incomes, much less attention has been paid to whether sustainability standards can help improve smallholders’ diets. In addition, the link between the gender effects of sustainability standards and nutrition has remained largely unexplored. Using data from certified and non-certified coffee farmers in different districts of Rwanda, we assess the impact of certification on dietary quality. In addition, we examine women’s empowerment as a potential pathway for the impact of sustainability standards on farmers’ nutrition. We use inverse probability weighting regression adjustment and mediation analysis to estimate our results. We find positive associations between certification and dietary quality. Our results further suggest that women’s empowerment is indeed a mediator of dietary quality, but that there may be other potential impact channels that need to be investigated. We conclude that efforts to improve women’s empowerment within certification schemes can improve farmers’ nutrition, but other complementary pathways need to be better understood. |
| Keywords: | Agricultural and Food Policy, Community/Rural/Urban Development, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Sustainability |
| Date: | 2024–07 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ags:gausfs:344225 |