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on Confederation of Independent States |
| By: | Futura D'Aprile; Martin Koehler; Paolo Maranzano; Mario Pianta; Francesco Strazzari |
| Abstract: | This paper investigates the expansion of EU military activities, involving the European Commission, other EU-related institutions and Member States. Expenditure on EU military programmes - defence-related R\&D, arms production, joint procurement, military mobility, and the supply of lethal weapons to third countries - has skyrocketed since 2021, well before the Russian invasion of Ukraine, with an increase of about 350% from 2021 to 2024. The European Commission is playing a growing role in developing initiatives in the defence domain, with programmes such as the European Defence Fund that supports research into and production of new weapons systems. In 2025, it announced the plan ReArm Europe, later renamed Readiness 2030, to sustain the further militarization of the EU. The largest arms-related programme, however, is the European Peace Facility that is funded by EU Member States - as opposed to previous actions funded by the EU budget - for the supply of weapons, ammunitions and equipment to non-EU countries; Ukraine has obtained € 5.6 billion of military supplies from the European Peace Facility since the start of the war with Russia. EU military programmes have spent a total amount of € 8.2 billion in 2023, as opposed to € 200 million in 2019. The largest part of Europe's military expenditure, however, is still found in national budgets. In 2024, NATO EU countries spent € 346 billion in their military budgets, with an increase in real terms of 66% between 2013 and 2024. When we consider the total spending of NATO EU countries and the major EU economies - Germany, France, Italy and Spain - we find that in the last decade the expansion of national military budgets, and particularly the acquisition of new weapons and equipment, has dramatically outpaced growth in GDP, total public expenditures and spending on the environment, education and health. In a context of widening conflicts, current political developments - in US policy and within the EU - are accelerating the militarisation of European policies without an adequate debate on real security needs, on the model of EU integration in defence and on the economic dimensions of the process. |
| Keywords: | EU programmes, military technologies, arms expenditure, economic performance |
| Date: | 2025–07–24 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ssa:lemwps:2025/25 |
| By: | Annette Alstadsæter (NMBU); Matthew Collin (EU Tax Observatory); Bluebery Planterose (EU Tax Observatory); Gabriel Zucman (EU Tax Observatory); Andreas Økland (NMBU) |
| Abstract: | This note presents new evidence on the scale of foreign investment in the Dubai residential property market. Using new data comprising the ownership of a large share of the Dubai property market, we present updated estimates of foreign-owned real estate for the years 2020 and 2022. We find that foreign nationals hold around 43% of the total value of all residential property in the city. Foreign-owned residential real estate grew by 20%—around $23 billion—between the beginning of 2020 and early 2022. We also find evidence of a substantial boom in Russian interest in the city following the invasion of Ukraine, with both utility accounts and residential leases associated with Russian nationals increasing sharply. Relying on simple assumptions to allocate new property purchases across nationalities, we conservatively estimate that Russians bought up to $2.4 billion worth of existing properties and a further $3.9 billion of in-development properties since the invasion. |
| Keywords: | Foreign real estate ownership, money laundering, global asset registry |
| JEL: | H26 F38 R31 |
| Date: | 2024–05 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:dbp:plnote:010 |
| By: | Kotylko, Yaroslav; Yuriyovych, Husiev Oleksii |
| Abstract: | The article analyses the historical conditions for the formation and development of alternative (non-military) service in Armenia, as well as the current legislative mechanisms and practical experience of its application. The authors describe the history of the emergence and development of the institute of alternative service in Armenia. Particular attention is paid to the influence of state institutions and religious organisations on the decision to refuse military service on grounds of conscience, as well as to the specifics of the activities of various religious organisations under martial law. The authors reveal the role of the Armenian Apostolic Church as the national church and demonstrate how the freedom of activity of other religious organisations registered in Armenia is ensured. The authors emphasise the significant impact of the decisions of international judicial institutions whose jurisdiction is recognised by Armenia, as well as the conclusions of international human rights organisations on the development of the institute of alternative service in this country. Based on Armenia's experience, the authors offer a number of recommendations for Ukraine seeking to improve its national legislation on alternative (non-military) service. Based on the results of a detailed analysis of the peculiarities of the procedure for performing two different forms of alternative service (alternative military service and alternative labour service) in Armenia, the authors show that this approach allows for a more complete consideration of the interests of both the state and citizens who have religious beliefs incompatible with traditional military service. The authors conclude that it is possible to amend the legislation of Ukraine on alternative (non-military) service to introduce several types of alternative service for different categories of citizens depending on the specifics of their religious beliefs. This is extremely relevant for Ukraine, given the Russian-Ukrainian war. The institutional expansion of the range of forms for the Motherland’s defence can significantly strengthen the defence capability of the state and at the same time guarantee the exercise of everyone's right to freedom of conscience and religion. |
| Date: | 2025–03–13 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:osf:osfxxx:2rwb8_v1 |
| By: | Nitsova, Silviya (University of Manchester) |
| Abstract: | State capture by extremely wealthy elites is a widespread phenomenon in developing democracies, yet the mechanisms through which it works and the impact it has on political and policy outcomes remain poorly understood. I develop a network-based approach to studying captured institutions. Focusing on the national legislature and using social network and regression analyses of unique quantitative data and original interview-based evidence on the case of Ukraine (2014-2022), I demonstrate that oligarchs seek to defend their wealth by promoting as members of parliament individuals who are linked to them via interpersonal ties. The connections between oligarchs and legislators take the form of a highly fragmented, weakly connected, and decentralized network with distinct clusters, in which oligarchs occupy central positions, and influence the adoption of policies related to oligarchs' economic interests. The study has important implications for the scholarship on money in politics, oligarchy, state capture, political connections, neopatrimonialism, legislative politics, political parties, and political representation. |
| Date: | 2025–06–23 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:osf:osfxxx:k27ez_v1 |
| By: | Gerards Iglesias, Simon |
| Abstract: | Dreieinhalb Jahre nach Kriegsbeginn plant die US-Regierung neue Russland-Sanktionen, darunter drakonische Sekundärzölle für Länder, die russische Waren beziehen. China ist mit 130 Milliarden US-Dollar wichtigster Importeur russischer Waren. Trotz westlicher Sanktionen stiegen die Exporte Russlands in die 20 größten Handelspartner 2024 inflationsbereinigt um 18Prozent auf 330 Milliarden US-Dollar - Putins Kriegskasse bleibt gut gefüllt. Effizienter als neue Zölle wären ein deutlich gesenkter Ölpreisdeckel und strengere Maßnahmen gegen die Schattenflotte. |
| Date: | 2025 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zbw:iwkkur:320468 |
| By: | Akcura, Elcin |
| Abstract: | Oil prices have been increasingly volatile since 2004. However, the impact of this volatility on domestic end-user prices differs significantly by fuel and country. Some countries fully pass through global price movements to domestic end-user prices, and some countries freeze domestic fuel prices for long periods of time. Fuel subsidies emerge or grow if domestic prices significantly diverge from international prices in times of rising international oil prices. This paper draws on two new databases developed by the author for the purposes of this paper to analyze the degree of pass-through of international price volatility onto domestic consumers for eight fuels between December 2017 and December 2023 for up to 125 economies, depending on the fuel. This period saw significant oil price volatility on account of events such as the COVID-19 pandemic and the war in Ukraine. The paper finds that domestic prices in many countries did not follow international fuel prices within the period analyzed. Countries with price controls had much lower levels of pass-through than those with price deregulation. Countries that adjusted their fuel prices at frequent intervals (weekly or monthly) had higher levels of price pass-through than those adjusting them quarterly or less frequently. Currency depreciation and the existence of an official fuel subsidy are associated with lower levels of price pass-through, and the impact of being a net crude oil or net refined fuel exporter is mixed. The results show that not tracking international prices closely is associated with higher incidences of fuel shortages, fuel smuggling, and fuel black marketing. |
| Date: | 2025–06–26 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:wbk:wbrwps:11153 |
| By: | Kotylko, Yaroslav |
| Abstract: | The article is devoted to the analysis of the legal and organizational aspects of alternative (non-military) service in the Republic of Korea. Particular attention is paid to the process of its formation, legal evolution and the role of the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Korea in recognizing the right of citizens to conscientious objection to military service. The author considers the mechanisms for implementing alternative service, including the procedure for applying, the selection criteria of the Alternative Service Commission, the conditions of service and financial support for persons who have chosen this type of military service. The article also analyzes the features of the legal regulation of alternative service, in particular its connection with the national security system. The issues of the social status of alternative service workers, their rights and obligations, as well as restrictions, in particular regarding political activity, are considered. An important aspect of the study is the comparative analysis of alternative service in South Korea and Ukraine, which allows identifying common features and key differences in approaches to regulating this institution. The author pays attention to international standards for the protection of human rights, recommendations of international organizations, such as the UN and the Venice Commission, regarding alternative service and its compliance with the principle of freedom of conscience. The practice of verifying the motives of conscientious objectors, the possibility of its improvement, as well as the issue of excessive interference in the private lives of applicants are separately considered. The experience of South Korea in the aspects of legal regulation, social security, financing and control over the completion of alternative service is important for Ukraine, which is in the process of reforming its own alternative service system during the Russian-Ukrainian war. The introduction of transparent procedures for recognizing conscientious objectors, determining reasonable criteria for verifying motives, regulating issues of social and material security are key tasks for further improving the relevant legislation. |
| Date: | 2025–04–10 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:osf:osfxxx:dx5zv_v1 |
| By: | Khakimov, Parviz; Aragie, Emerta A.; Goibov, Manuchehr; Ashurov, Timur |
| Abstract: | Irrigation and timely access to sufficient volumes of water are vital to increase crops productivity, rural incomes, and food security (FAO 2023; World Bank 2021). In Tajikistan, irrigation sector faces several challenges and constraints such as: aged, poorly maintained infrastructure and poor management system that led low-quality irrigation services; limited investment in drainage infrastructure, inadequate maintenance, poor water management, and harmful irrigation practices that led salinization and waterlogging in some irrigated areas. In addition, the ongoing process of climate change and rising temperatures will increase crop water demands, while water supply reliability will decline, leading to more-severe, more-frequent water stress. The minimum required operation and maintenance on irrigation infrastructure estimated to be about US$35 million per year. Around 85 percent of cultivated land is irrigated and provides more than 90 percent of the total value of crop production. Since independence, the condition and performance of irrigation infrastructure has declined because of severe underfinancing. More than 40 percent of irrigated areas depend on pumping (the highest dependency in Central Asia), and many high-lift, high-volume pumping stations are in poor condition. Pumping is inefficient (~0.28 kWh/m3, which accounts for 20 percent of total national electricity use). The economic productivity of irrigation is among the lowest 5 percent of countries in the world (~0.21 USD/m) because of high water loss, predominance of low-value crops, and low yields. Irrigation is heavily subsidized but still underfunded. Between 2016 and 2019, the share of public agriculture expenditure on irrigation infrastructure was high (44.6 percent or 880.3 million Tajik Somoni). Irrigation is financed through direct transfers for electricity, government subsidies for pumping station staff costs, revenue from irrigation service fees, WUA membership fees (for on-farm operations and maintenance), and donor investments. More than 60 percent of irrigation capital expenditures (including flood protection) is donor financed (Khakimov et al. 2024; World Bank. SWIM Project 2022). |
| Keywords: | investment; infrastructure; agrifood systems; early warning systems; irrigation; Tajikistan; Asia; Central Asia |
| Date: | 2025–06–25 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:annrep:175318 |
| By: | Khakimov, Parviz; Aragie, Emerta A.; Goibov, Manuchehr; Ashurov, Timur |
| Abstract: | Findings of recent study shows that in 2021, roughly 5 percent of farms and nearly 14 percent of arable land used professional extension services. Extension service actors in Tajikistan include Ministry of Agriculture, Tajik Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Tajik Agrarian University, government extension specialists at the village level, the private sector, and NGOs, with a total staff of about 2, 250 people, of whom about 600 are trained to provide professional extension services (Muminov 2021). The government’s fiscal space is limited the extent of support to such investments. Thus, there is a notable underinvestment in extension and advisory services (EAS), 2.4 percent of total public expenditure in agriculture sector between 2016-2019 (World Bank 2021). In this brief, for evaluating the potential impact of investment on extension and advisory services to accelerate agricultural transformation and inclusiveness in Tajikistan AFS, we rely on the IFPRI’s Rural Investment and Policy Analysis (RIAPA) economywide dynamic computable general equilibrium (CGE) model which incorporates household survey-based microsimulation and investment modules, and simulates the functioning of a market economy, comprising markets for products and factors which include land, labor, and capital (IFPRI 2023). |
| Keywords: | investment; extension systems; advisory services; agrifood systems; agriculture; Tajikistan; Asia; Central Asia |
| Date: | 2025–06–25 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:annrep:175323 |
| By: | Khakimov, Parviz; Aragie, Emerta A.; Goibov, Manuchehr; Ashurov, Timur |
| Abstract: | Findings of World Bank study (WB, SRAS Project 2021) indicates that lack of sufficient quantity and quality of seeds, seedlings, and planting materials in domestic market is one of the critical issues affecting farmers income and food security. Most donor projects provide direct extension support to farmers on multiplying and adopting seeds and seedlings. The local capacity to generate new varieties and planting materials remains low and over 50 percent of all agricultural inputs are imported. The capacity to test new varieties of crops for their adaptation to soils and climate in the country is also lacking, and in general the regular testing of new varieties, whether domestically developed or imported, is not conducted. Between 2016-2019, the share of public agriculture expenditure on inputs distribution to the farmers (0.04 percent or 0.81 million Tajik Somoni) and development of seeds and seedlings (0.8 percent or 16.64 million Tajik Somoni) were low (Khakimov et al. 2024). |
| Keywords: | investment; markets; food systems; farm inputs; seeds; agriculture; Tajikistan; Asia; Central Asia |
| Date: | 2025–06–25 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:annrep:175319 |
| By: | Lambrecht, Isabel B.; Mardonova Tolibkhonovna, Mohru; Pechtl, Sarah; Teirlinck, Charlotte |
| Abstract: | Labor migration is generally motivated by the prospect of higher earnings abroad, and many migrants support their left-behind household members through remittances. Migrants’ long-term absence from home may, however, also affect intra-household dynamics among those remaining behind. Relying on primary qualitative data as well as quantitative data from 938 married women, we analyze empowerment impacts of migration on women in rural southern Tajikistan. Tajikistan is one of the most remittance-dependent countries in the world. A large share of young men migrates internationally, leaving behind – and often supporting – a multi-generational household. Yet, strong social norms limit the decision-making power and mobility of women, particularly of young women. Whereas senior women report noticeable differences when their spouses migrate, this is far less so for young women who live with their parents-in-law. Our study demonstrates that accounting for a respondent’s position within the household is key to understanding empowerment outcomes of its members. |
| Keywords: | migration; gender; households; women's empowerment; Tajikistan; Asia; Central Asia |
| Date: | 2025–07–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:gsspwp:175568 |
| By: | Antoci, Natalia; Arcudi, Noemi; Brigandì, Giorgia; Capitanio, Gianna; Diaconu, Valentina; Lombardo, Aurora Mariapia; Sauta, Antonella; Gitto, Lara |
| Abstract: | Introduzione di Lara Gitto Rural Tourism Development Trends and Perspectives in the Republic of Moldova di Natalia Antoci L’UNESCO e le “sette meraviglie” del mondo moderno di Valentina Diaconu L’overtourism e il caso di Venezia a confronto con la Moldavia di Giorgia Brigandì Valorizzare una destinazione turistica nell’Italia meridionale: l’esempio di Reggio Calabria e il suo patrimonio culturale di Noemi Arcudi Differenze e similitudini tra la cultura e le tradizioni culturali moldave e calabresi di Aurora Mariapia Lombardo. Tradizioni a confronto: Made in Italy e Made in Moldova di Antonella Sauta Un viaggio tra i vigneti: esplorando le differenze tra i vini italiani e moldavi di Gianna Capitanio Conclusioni di Lara Gitto e Natalia Antoci |
| Keywords: | Beni culturali; tradizioni popolari; destinazioni turistiche; Italia; Moldavia. |
| JEL: | O19 P27 Q26 R58 Z13 Z19 |
| Date: | 2025–07–03 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:125161 |
| By: | Khakimov, Parviz; Aragie, Emerta A.; Goibov, Manuchehr; Ashurov, Timur |
| Abstract: | The World Bank’s agriculture sector public expenditure review study (World Bank 2021) findings indicates that public expenditure on agriculture sector remains relatively small at less than one percent of GDP, though grew significantly between 2015 and 2020, and the sector relies heavily on donor financing (54 percent). There is a notable underinvestment in R&D, 0.7 percent of total public expenditure in agriculture sector between 2016-2019, which impacts productivity and climate resilience. In this brief, for evaluating the potential impact of investment on Research and Development (R&D) to accelerate agricultural transformation and inclusiveness in Tajikistan agrifood system (AFS), we rely on the IFPRI’s Rural Investment and Policy Analysis (RIAPA) economywide dynamic computable general equilibrium (CGE) model which incorporates household survey-based microsimulation and investment modules, and simulates the functioning of a market economy, comprising markets for products and factors which include land, labor, and capital (IFPRI 2023). |
| Keywords: | investment; research; development; agrifood systems; agricultural sector; computable general equilibrium models; Tajikistan; Asia; Central Asia |
| Date: | 2025–06–25 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:annrep:175325 |
| By: | Ilyas Ahnach (FSJES Agdal, Université Mohammed V Rabat, Maroc - Laboratoire d’économie appliquée en sciences économiques (LEA)); Said Tounsi |
| Abstract: | L'intégration de la technologie blockchain sur le marché financier promet un véritable développement du marché. Elle peut transformer l'organisation et le fonctionnement du marché, en créant un système décentralisé et distribué qui apporte plus de transparence et de sécurité nécessaire au développement du marché financier. L'objectif principal de ce papier est alors d'analyser si l'intégration de la technologie blockchain améliore la résilience du marché financier, en prenant le cas de la Bourse de Casablanca. La méthode utilisée est une analyse comparative entre la résilience du marché financier et celle de la blockchain en utilisant les réponses impulsionnelles du modèle VAR (TVP-VAR). Les deux évènements choisis pour analyser la résilience sont la période du Covid-19 et de la guerre Russe-Ukraine. Les résultats de l'étude démontrent alors clairement que la technologie blockchain permet un retour à l'équilibre plus rapidement après la survenance d'un choc et son intégration sur le marché améliorera sa résilience. |
| Keywords: | Blockchain, résilience, système décentralisé, Covid-19 |
| Date: | 2025–06–22 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:journl:hal-05135043 |