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on Agricultural Economics |
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Issue of 2009‒06‒03
twenty-one papers chosen by |
| By: | Rabbinge, Rudy |
| Abstract: | Higher temperatures, more variable precipitation, and changes in the frequency and severity of extreme climate events will have significant consequences for food production and food security. However, the frequency of heat stress, drought, and flooding are also expected to increase, even though they cannot be modeled satisfactorily with current climate models. They will undoubtedly have adverse effects on crops and agricultural productivity over and above the effects due to changes in mean variables alone. The impacts of climate change on agriculture are likely to be regionally distinct and highly heterogeneous spatially, requiring sophisticated understanding of causes and effects and careful design and dissemination of appropriate responses. These changes will challenge the livelihoods of farmers, fishers, and forest-dependent people who are already vulnerable and food insecure. Adapting to these changes, while continuing to feed a world of 9 billion people, requires the formation of a global partnership in science, technology development, and dissemination of results to millions of smallholder farmers, bringing together research workers and resource managers from many fields. To take an international approach to climate change, new partnerships must be forged, linking the agricultural research and climate science communities. |
| Keywords: | Climate change, Science and technology, Agricultural research, |
| Date: | 2009 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:2020br:16(2)&r=agr |
| By: | Markelova, Helen; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth |
| Abstract: | Even with abundant evidence of the urgent need for action on climate change mitigation, there are still those who consider mitigation strategies a burden. In the agricultural sector, climate change mitigation calls for changing some agricultural and resource management practices and technologies and often requires additional investment. However, there is an opportunity in agriculture for net benefit streams from a variety of zero- or low-cost mitigation opportunities ranging from agroforestry practices and restoration of degraded soils to zero-till and other land-management practices. Momentum has been generated to incorporate agriculture into carbon markets, potentially allowing smallholder farmers to access benefit streams from such transactions. However, who will receive the benefits from mitigation funds by, for example, increasing carbon stocks or reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from land, will depend on the way different types of property rights are defined and dealt with in the upcoming climate change negotiations in Copenhagen. In many areas of the world, land tenure arrangements are complex. For example, in Africa, more than 90 percent of the land is formally claimed as state land, although millions of farming and pastoralist households use various customary and informal arrangements to access the land and other resources. Millions of hectares of forest and pastoral land in Asia and Latin America are similarly listed as state land, although used by communities, especially those of indigenous people or other marginalized ethnic groups. Often the same area may be under co-existing informal tenure systems, most of which are not recognized by formal land laws, but are instead accepted and enforced by the communities. Even where property rights are vested in a formal legal system with strong enforcement procedures, climate change mitigation measures raise new issues of who owns incremental carbon stocks and who should receive compensation for reductions in GHG emissions. |
| Keywords: | Climate change, |
| Date: | 2009 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:2020br:16(10)&r=agr |
| By: | Nelson, Gerald C. |
| Abstract: | Table of Contents: •Overview by Gerald C. Nelson •Agricultural Science and Technology Needs for Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation by Rudy Rabbinge •Reducing Methane Emissions from Irrigated Rice by Reiner Wassmann, Yasukazu Hosen, and Kay Sumfleth •Direct and Indirect Mitigation Through Tree and Soil Management by Brent M. Swallow and Meine van Noordwijk •The Potential for Soil Carbon Sequestration by Rattan Lal •Mitigating Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Livestock Systems by M. Herrero and P. K. Thornton •The Role of Nutrient Management in Mitigation by Helen C. Flynn •Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification Methodologies for Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use by Sean Smukler and Cheryl Palm •Synergies Among Mitigation, Adaptation, and Sustainable Development by Pete Smith •The Importance of Property Rights in Climate Change Mitigation by Helen Markelova and Ruth Meinzen-Dick •The Important Role of Extension Systems by Kristin E. Davis •Adaptation to Climate Change: Household Impacts and Institutional Responses by Futoshi Yamauchi and Agnes Quisumbing •The Constructive Role of International Trade by Franz Fischler |
| Keywords: | Climate change, Copenhagen, Science and technology, rice, Soil fertility management, Greenhouse gas, Nutrients, Forestry resources, Land use, Sustainable development, International trade, extension activities, Household behavior, Institutional Impacts, |
| Date: | 2009 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:2020fo:16&r=agr |
| By: | Flynn, Helen C. |
| Abstract: | Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from soils are responsible for about 3 percent of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which cause climate change, and contribute approximately one-third of non-CO2 agricultural GHG emissions. N2O is produced by microbial transformations of nitrogen in the soil, under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Therefore, emissions are often directly related to nutrients added to the soil in the form of mineral fertilizers and animal manure. These additions can be vital in maintaining soil fertility and crop production; about half of the world's population is dependent on food produced strictly because of mineral fertilizer inputs. However, the additions are also highly inefficient, leading to nitrogen losses via leaching, volatilization, and emissions to the atmosphere. By helping to maximize crop-nitrogen uptake, improved nutrient management has a significant and cost-effective role to play in mitigating GHG emissions from agriculture. Nutrient management can also help reduce methane (CH4) emissions from rice production and increase carbon sequestration in agricultural soils. |
| Keywords: | Climate change, |
| Date: | 2009 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:2020br:16(7)&r=agr |
| By: | Smukler, Sean; Palm, Cheryl |
| Abstract: | Facilitating carbon sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems could provide a significant amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) abatement, which is necessary to limit global temperature increases to only 2 degrees Celsius in the next century until more permanent mitigation strategies are instituted. With relatively small investments, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions could be offset dramatically by management practices such as planting trees, reducing deforestation, midseason draining of irrigated rice, improving nitrogen fertilization efficiency, and increasing organic matter inputs to agricultural soils. Together these types of practices could add up to more than 25 percent of the combined near-term abatement strategies (including energy efficiency and low-carbon energy supply) required to stabilize emissions. While most terrestrial management potential is based on reduced deforestation and degradation (REDD), no one program can be effective in isolation. It is crucial to recognize that there are multiple competing uses for land and that maximizing GHG mitigation is not likely to be achieved with carbon-based financial incentives alone, particularly if incentives do not reach those most responsible for land management. Nearly 90 percent of the potential for terrestrial carbon capture can be found in the developing world, where land managers are largely poor farmers on small plots of land. It is imperative that these farmers be involved in carbon mitigation strategies, but dealing with numerous smallholders is an enormous challenge because planning, monitoring, reporting, and verifying mitigation creates transaction costs for carbon contracts that can be prohibitively expensive. It is therefore critical for the international community to immediately invest in the research and development of innovative methodologies to reduce transaction costs by increasing the effectiveness of monitoring, reporting, and verification for Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) projects, particularly for smallholder agriculture in tropical regions. |
| Keywords: | Climate change, |
| Date: | 2009 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:2020br:16(8)&r=agr |
| By: | Linh Vu Hoang (Center for Agricultural Policy, Institute of Policy and Strategy for Agriculture and Rural Development); Paul Glewwe (Professor, Department of Applied Economics, University of Minnesota) |
| Abstract: | This paper examines the impacts of rising food prices on poverty and welfare in Vietnam. Increases in food prices raise the real incomes of those selling food, but reduce the welfare of net food purchasers. Overall, the net impact of higher food prices on an average Vietnamese household's welfare is positive. However, the benefits and costs are not spread evenly across the population. A majority of the population would be worse off from increases in food prices. More specifically, a uniform increase in both food consumer and producer prices would reduce the welfare of 56 percent of Vietnamese households. Similarly, a uniform increase in the price of rice would reduce the welfare of about 54 percent of rural households and about 92 percent of urban households. The reason why average household welfare increases is that the average welfare loss of the households whose welfare declines (net purchasers) is smaller than the average welfare gain of the households whose welfare increases (net sellers). A relatively small increase in food prices reduces poverty rate slightly because poorer households in Vietnam tend to be net sellers. However, a large food price increase, for example a 50 percent increase, may increase the poverty rate. |
| Keywords: | Vietnam poverty rate |
| Date: | 2009 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:dpc:wpaper:1309&r=agr |
| By: | Tom Kompas, Tuong Nhu Che, Ha Quang Nguyen and Hoa Thi Minh Nguyen |
| Abstract: | Extensive land and market reform in Vietnam has resulted in dramatic increases in rice output over the past thirty years. The land and market reforms in agriculture were pervasive, moving the system of rice production from commune-based public ownership and control to one with effective private property rights over land and Farm assets, competitive domestic markets and individual decision making over a wide range of agricultural activities. The effect of this reform period and beyond is detailed with measures of total factor productivity (TFP), terms of trade and net returns in rice production in Vietnam from 1985 to 2006. Results show that TFP rises considerably in the major rice growing areas (the Mekong and Red River Deltaareas) during the early years of reform, and beyond, but also that there is clear evidence of a productivity `slow-down' since 2000. The differences over time and by region speak directly to existing land use regulations and practices, suggesting calls for further land and market reform. To illustrate this, additional frontier and efficiency model estimates detail the effects of remaining institutional and policy constraints, including existing restrictions on land consolidation and conversion and poorly developed markets for land and capital. Estimates show that larger and less land-fragmented farms, farms in the major rice growing areas, and those farms that are better irrigated, have a greater proportion of capital per unit of cultivated land, a clear property right or land use certificate and access to agricultural extension services are more efficient. |
| Date: | 2009 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:idc:wpaper:idec09-02&r=agr |
| By: | Linh Vu Hoang (Center for Agricultural Policy, Institute of Policy and Strategy for Agriculture and Rural Development) |
| Abstract: | This paper analyzes food consumption patterns of Vietnamese households, using a complete demand system and socio-demographic information. Demand elasticities are estimated using the AIDS model and the latest Vietnamese household survey data in 2006. The results indicate that food consumption pattern in Vietnam are affected by income, price as well as socioeconomic and geographic factors. All food has positive expenditure elasticities and negative own-price elasticities. In particular, rice has mean expenditure elasticity of 0.36 and mean own-price elasticity of -0.80. Thus, an increase in the price in rice by one percent will reduce rice consumption by 0.8 percent, on average. On the other hand, an increase in the income by 1 percent leads to an increase in rice demand by 0.36 percent. It indicates that food consumption in urban and rural areas, and among regions and income groups are different. It points out that targeted food policies should be formulated based on specific food demand patterns in the groups. |
| Keywords: | Vietnam, food consumption, food demand, AIDS, elasticity |
| Date: | 2009 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:dpc:wpaper:1209&r=agr |
| By: | Swallow, Brent M.; van Noordwijk, Meine |
| Abstract: | Many opportunities exist for mitigating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through better management of trees and soils. There is potential for both direct mitigation through better management of carbon in agricultural landscapes and indirect mitigation through reduced pressure on carbon stored in forests, peatlands, and wetlands. Effectively harnessing these opportunities will take bold action in climate change negotiations. |
| Keywords: | Climate change, |
| Date: | 2009 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:2020br:16(4)&r=agr |
| By: | Nicole Mason; T.S. Jayne; Cynthia Donovan; Antony Chapoto |
| Abstract: | d food and financial crises threaten to undermine the real incomes of an consumers in eastern and southern Africa. This study investigates patterns in staple food prices, wage rates, and marketing margins for urban consumers in Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, and Zambia between 1993 and 2009. There is high correlation among wage rate series for various government and private sector categories. We find that average formal sector wages rose at a faster rate than retail maize meal and bread prices in urban Kenya and Zambia between the mid-1990s and 2007. Although the 2007/08 food price crisis partially reversed this trend, the quantities of staple foods affordable per daily wage in urban Kenya and Zambia during the 2008/09 marketing season were still roughly double their levels of the mid-1990s. The national minimum wage in Mozambique also grew more rapidly than rice and wheat flour prices in Maputo from the mid-1990s through the 2004/05 and 2006/07 marketing seasons, respectively. During the 2008/09 marketing season, Maputo minimum wage earners’ rice and wheat flour purchasing power was still higher than in the mid-1990s and roughly similar to levels at the millennium. These findings obtain for formal sector wage earners in Kenya and Zambia and minimum wage earners in Mozambique only. The majority of the urban labor force in these countries is employed in the informal sector; therefore, the general conclusion of improved food purchasing power over the past 15 years may not hold for a significant portion of urban workers. Maize marketing margins trended downward between 1994 and 2004 in urban Kenya, Malawi, and Zambia, while wheat marketing margins declined only in Kenya and Zambia. For the public sector, important strategies for keeping food prices at tolerable levels include strengthening and improving crop forecasting and the food balance sheet approach for estimating need for imports, facilitating imports in a timely manner when needed, and ensuring the continued availability of low- cost staple food options for urban consumers through small-scale processing and marketing channels. |
| Keywords: | agriculture, africa, food, price |
| JEL: | Q11 |
| Date: | 2009–06 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:msu:idpwrk:98&r=agr |
| By: | Antony Chapoto; T.S. Jayne |
| Abstract: | events in the 2008/09 season have amply demonstrated, instability in food market remains a major problem in Zambia. A rise in world food price levels and instability, which is projected to occur in the near future according to several international institutes, will make it all more important for developing countries to consider the strengths and weaknesses of alternative approaches for buffering their domestic food systems from potential high volatility in world markets. These findings suggest that promoting more “rules based” approaches to marketing and trade policy may reduce the level of policy uncertainty and the price instability associated with it. Greater policy stability may also contribute to broader grain market development. For the most part, addressing problems of policy uncertainty involve very little cost per se, but do require greater coordination and more efficient management of government operations. However, policy makers may feel that rules-based and non-discretionary marketing and trade policies entails a loss of control and autonomy – leaders are bound to act according to predefined rules and triggers. Successfully addressing these dilemmas may lie at the heart of efforts to move to a new post-liberalization system in which governments retain the ability to influence prices to achieve national food security objectives but within a clear and transparent framework of credible commitment to support long run private investment in the development of markets. |
| Keywords: | zambia, maize, trade, price |
| JEL: | Q11 |
| Date: | 2009–06 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:msu:icpwrk:icpw-zm-fsrp-wp-38&r=agr |
| By: | Nassar, Andre M.; Ures, Diego |
| Abstract: | "This paper is devoted to better understanding of the Brazilian agricultural national policies towards domestic support and implications related to WTO rules. Domestic support has taken central stage in the last years and in light of a global economic crisis will play an even greater role in international trade politics. The paper focuses on Brazil and lays out the different domestic support policies used by the government. It is divided into five distinct parts for better comprehension. These parts are as follow: a synopsis of policies and recent studies; replication of official WTO support notifications; construction of consistent shadow notification; comparison and discussion of shadow notifications in relation to the WTO rules; and projected notifications through 2018. Also ethanol policies and the WTO rules were carefully analysed in order to better understand the Brazilian domestic support. Through this paper the reader will be able to have a better understanding of Brazilian agricultural domestic support policies with respect to WTO rules—a topic not well evaluated in the academic arena up to this time. A lot of scientific work has been done in the field of domestic support, but little has been done to better understand domestic support policies of specific countries in light of the WTO legal system." from authors' abstract |
| Keywords: | Agricultural support, WTO Doha round, Notifications of domestic support, WTO compliance, Globalization, |
| Date: | 2009 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:ifprid:865&r=agr |
| By: | Yamauchi, Futoshi; Quisumbing, Agnes |
| Abstract: | Climate change will bring with it increased frequency of two types of natural disasters that affect agriculture and rural households: droughts and floods. It will also alter rainfall patterns, thereby changing farming practices, household behavior, and welfare. Households all over the world use a variety of formal and informal mechanisms to manage risk and cope with unexpected events that negatively affect incomes, assets, or well-being. These mechanisms include both preparation for and responses to natural disasters. In low-income settings, where formal insurance and government supports are limited, households tend to rely on informal coping strategies, such as transfers from friends and neighbors, remittances, or investments in a diverse range of assets, from livestock to human capital. When disaster-related shock affects only a few households at a time, informal mechanisms can be quite effective in dealing with the situation. However, if the shock affects large areas simultaneously, small-scale coping mechanisms become ineffective. Research on several climate-related national disasters—the 1998 floods in Bangladesh, the 2001 drought in Ethiopia, and the 2001–02 failed maize harvest in Malawi—suggests that the upcoming negotiations in Copenhagen need to explicitly define, support, and expand policies that protect vulnerable populations from the expected increase in climate-change related weather events. |
| Keywords: | Climate change, Copenhagen, |
| Date: | 2009 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:2020br:16(12)&r=agr |
| By: | Oded Hochman (Department of Economics, Ben Gurion University of the Negev); Gordon Rausser (University of California, Berkeley); Richard Arnott (Department of Economics, University of California Riverside) |
| Date: | 2008–03 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ucr:wpaper:200805&r=agr |
| By: | Cemal Atici |
| Abstract: | In this paper, a theoretical model was constructed to endogenously determine environmental weights in the agricultural sector. The conventional Political Preference Function was extended to include environmental weights. The model was applied to the wheat sector in the EU for the years 1990 and 2006. The results imply that designing protection levels that have small disparities between domestic and world prices and avoiding excess production cause a positive environmental surplus which leads to higher environmental weights. |
| Keywords: | Environmental Weights, Political Preference Functions, EU, Agriculture |
| JEL: | Q18 Q51 H23 |
| Date: | 2008–06 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:icr:wpicer:25-2008&r=agr |
| By: | Diao, Xinshen |
| Abstract: | "We use a dynamic CGE model to quantitatively assess the economywide impact of HPAI in Ghana. The likely effect of an avian flu outbreak is modeled as demand or supply shocks to the poultry sector. Our analysis shows that, while chicken is a quite small sector of the Ghanaian economy, the shock in chicken demand due to consumers' anxieties is the dominant factor in causing chicken production to fall. The indirect effect on soybean and maize that are used as chicken feed is also large. Under the worst-case scenario, soybean production will fall by 37 percent and maize by 6.4 percent. However, the economywide impact on both AgGDP and GDP is very small. In the worst-case scenario, in which chicken production falls by 70 percent in 2011, AgGDP falls by only 0.4 percent and GDP is almost unchanged. However, the livelihood impacts of a HPAI outbreak could be significant for some sections of the population in Ghana particularly those involved in the poultry sector. Micro-level analysis of chicken producers' livelihood, therefore, is necessary." from authors' abstract |
| Keywords: | Avian influenza Developing countries, General equilibrium model, Computable general equilibrium (CGE) modeling, Food safety, Water quality, Water policies, |
| Date: | 2009 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:ifprid:866&r=agr |
| By: | Herrero, M.; Thornton, P.K. |
| Abstract: | Livestock—poultry, small ruminants (such as goats and sheep), cattle, and pigs—provide many benefits for human well-being. Livestock production systems, especially in developing countries, are changing rapidly in response to population growth, urbanization, and growing demand for meat and milk. The need for action by all sectors to mitigate climate change adds additional complexity to the already considerable development challenges these systems face. Some livestock production systems use large quantities of natural resources and also produce significant amounts of greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs). Since the demand for meat and milk is increasing, the question is whether cost-effective mitigation options exist to meet them within equitably negotiated and sustainable GHG emission targets. In fact, emissions from livestock systems can be reduced significantly through technologies, policies, and the provision of adequate incentives for their implementation. The objective of this policy brief is to highlight options to mitigate GHGs from livestock industries and to suggest key negotiating outcomes for including livestock in the Copenhagen meetings. |
| Keywords: | Climate change, |
| Date: | 2009 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:2020br:16(6)&r=agr |
| By: | Brad Stennes; Kurt Niquidet; G. Cornelis van Kooten |
| Abstract: | Energy has been produced from woody biomass in British Columbia for many decades, but it was used primarily within the pulp and paper sector, using residual streams from timber processing, to create heat and electricity for on-site use. More recently, there has been limited stand-alone electricity production and increasing capacity to produce wood pellets, with both using ‘waste’ from the sawmill sector. Hence, most of the low-cost feedstock sources associated with traditional timber processing is now fully employed. While previous studies model bioenergy production in isolation, we employ a transportation model of the BC forest sector with 24 regions to demonstrate that it is necessary to consider the interaction between utilization of woody feedstock for pellet production and electricity generation and its traditional uses (e.g., production of pulp, oriented strand board, etc). We find that, despite the availability of large areas of mountain pine beetle killed timber, this wood does not enter the energy mix. Further expansion of biofeedstock for energy is met by a combination of woody debris collected at harvesting sites and/or bidding away of fibre from existing users. |
| Keywords: | bioenergy production from wood fibre; mountain pine beetle; competition for fibre |
| JEL: | Q23 Q42 C61 Q54 |
| Date: | 2009–04 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:rep:wpaper:2009-02&r=agr |
| By: | Dahlström, Tobias (CESIS - Centre of Excellence for Science and Innovation Studies, Royal Institute of Technology); Åsberg, Erik (CESIS - Centre of Excellence for Science and Innovation Studies, Royal Institute of Technology) |
| Abstract: | The purpose of this paper is to characterise the demand for wine. In contrast to the majority of current research efforts this paper treats wine as a heterogeneous good with a range of inherent characteristics. Each wine included in the study is described by twelve variables including, among others, price, quality, sensory attributes and country of origin. Using unique data that cover 90 percent of all wines sold in Sweden we conclude that consumers do recognise quality in wine, that price elasticity is non-constant and decreasing with price and that consumers put a great deal of weight on the country of origin of the wine. |
| Keywords: | consumer preferences; wine; quality; price elasticity; heterogeneous goods |
| JEL: | D12 D42 |
| Date: | 2009–06–04 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hhs:cesisp:0182&r=agr |
| By: | Fernando Brito Soares |
| Abstract: | Panel unit root tests are used to identify convergence of Green House Gas (GHG) emissions among the agr icultural sectors of the European Union 27 member states. Although a clear cut conclusion on the existence of convergence could not be established, it looks like there is some evidence of convergence for EU 27 during the entire 1973-2007 period. This same evidence exists for EU15 but only for the shorter 1996-2006 time period. If emissions are to converge, then it will be easier to make EU members to accept policy measures aimed at reducing the negative impact on environment. |
| Date: | 2009–05 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:icr:wpicer:07-2009&r=agr |
| By: | Francesc Valls-Junyent (Universitat de Barcelona) |
| Abstract: | First of all, the author wonders about the degree of success of the Catalan sparkling wine industry in the recent past. The comparison with the Italian sparkling spumante and also with the case of the most celebrated sparkling wine in the world, champagne, shows a very positive trend of the cava production and exports in the last three decades of the XXth century. Secondly, this paper focuses on the agent or cause responsible of this success. Is it due to a particular firm or should it be attributed to the whole industrial cava cluster around the area of Sant Sadurni dAnoia? More than two thirds of the exports correspond to a particular firm. In this sense, we should attribute the success to it. However, the historical explanation of the development of the industrial cava cluster in the main and well-kwown viticultural Catalan area of Penedes, shows that all producers have benefit from the Marshalian external economies due to this concentration. And the paper shows that the leading export firm would never have succeeded in the international market without the existence of this kind of invisible advantages. |
| Keywords: | skilled labor, wine industry, wine trade, spumante, cava, cluster, champagne, sparkling wine, protectionism |
| JEL: | N64 N34 D23 O14 L66 L23 J24 F16 F14 |
| Date: | 2009 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:bar:bedcje:2009224&r=agr |